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45.6A: Introduction to Animal Behavior - Biology

45.6A: Introduction to Animal Behavior - Biology

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Behavior is the change in activity of an organism in response to a stimulus and can be grouped as innate or learned.

Learning Objectives

  • Distinguish between innate and learned behaviors

Key Points

  • Behavioral biology is the study of the biological and evolutionary bases for changes in activity in response to a stimulus.
  • Comparative psychology is an extension of work done in human and behavioral psychology. Ethology is an extension of genetics, evolution, anatomy, physiology, and other biological disciplines.
  • Innate behaviors have a strong genetic component and are largely independent of environmental influences; they are “hard wired.”
  • Learned behaviors result from environmental conditioning; they allow an organism to adapt to changes in the environment and are modified by previous experiences..

Key Terms

  • behavioral biology: A systematic approach to the understanding of human and animal behavior assuming that the behavior of a human or animal is a consequence of that individual’s history.
  • comparative psychology: The scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior.

Behavior is the change in activity of an organism in response to a stimulus. Behavioral biology is the study of the biological and evolutionary bases for such changes. The idea that behaviors evolved as a result of the pressures of natural selection is not new.

Animal behavior has been studied for decades, by biologists in the science of ethology, by psychologists in the science of comparative psychology, and by scientists of many disciplines in the study of neurobiology. Although there is overlap between these disciplines, scientists in these behavioral fields take different approaches. Comparative psychology is an extension of work done in human and behavioral psychology. Ethology is an extension of genetics, evolution, anatomy, physiology, and other biological disciplines. One cannot study behavioral biology without touching on both comparative psychology and ethology.

One goal of behavioral biology is to distinguish the innate behaviors, which have a strong genetic component and are largely independent of environmental influences, from the learned behaviors, which result from environmental conditioning.

Innate behavior, or instinct, is important because there is no risk of an incorrect behavior being learned. These behaviors are “hard wired” into the system. In contrast, learned behaviors are flexible, dynamic, and can be altered relative to changes in the environment. Learned behaviors, even though they may have instinctive components, allow an organism to adapt to changes in the environment and are modified by previous experiences. Simple learned behaviors include habituation and imprinting—both are important to the maturation process of young animals.


Causation

At this level of analysis, questions concern the physiological machinery underlying an animal’s behaviour. Behaviour is explained in terms of the firings of the neural circuits between reception of the stimuli (sensory input) and movements of the muscles (motor output). Consider, for example, a worker honeybee (Apis mellifera) flying back to her hive from a field of flowers several kilometres away. The sensory processes the bee employs, the neural computations she performs, and the patterns of muscular activity she uses to make her way home constitute some of the mechanisms underlying the insect’s impressive feat of homing. In the course of exploring these mechanisms and those underlying other forms of animal behaviour, physiologists have learned an important lesson regarding the mechanisms underlying behaviour: they are special-purpose adaptations tailored to the particular problems faced by an animal, but they are not all-purpose solutions to general problems faced by all animals. Linked to this lesson is the realization that the physiology of a species will have limitations and biases that reflect individuals’ need to deal only with certain behavioral problems and only in specific ecological contexts. In behaviour, as in morphology, an animal’s capabilities are matched to its expected environmental requirements, because the process of natural selection shapes organisms as if it were always addressing the question of how much adaptation is enough.

Consider first the sensory abilities of animals. All actions (such as body movements, detection of objects of interest, or learning from others in a social group) begin with the acquisition of information. Thus, an animal’s sense organs are exceedingly important to its behaviour. They constitute a set of monitoring instruments with which the animal gathers information about itself and its environment. Each sense organ is selective, responding only to one particular form of energy an instrument that responds indiscriminately to multiple forms of energy would be rather useless and similar to having none at all. The particular form of energy to which a sense organ responds determines its sensory modality. Three broad categories of sensory modalities are familiar to humans: chemoreception (exemplified by the senses of taste and smell but also including specialized receptors for pheromones and other behaviorally important molecules), mechanoreception (the basis for touch, hearing, balance, and many other senses, such as joint position), and photoreception (light sensitivity, including form and colour vision).

The capabilities of an animal’s sense organs differ depending on the behavioral and ecological constraints of the species. In recognition of this fact and of the equally important fact that animals perceive their environments differently than do humans, ethologists have adopted the word Umwelt, a German word for environment, to denote an organism’s unique sensory world. The umwelt of a male yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti), for example, differs sharply from that of a human. Whereas the human auditory system hears sounds over a wide range of frequencies, from 20 to about 20,000 Hz, the male mosquito’s hearing apparatus has been tuned narrowly to hear only sounds around 380 Hz. Despite its apparent limitations, a male mosquito’s auditory system serves him perfectly well, for the only sound he must detect is the enchanting wing-tone whine of a female mosquito hovering nearby, a sound all too familiar to anyone who lingers outdoors on a midsummer’s evening.

Pit vipers, colubrid snakes from the subfamily Crotalinae, which include the well-known rattlesnakes, provide another example of how the umwelt of a species serves its own ecological needs. Pit vipers possess directionally sensitive infrared detectors with which they can scan their environment while stalking mammalian prey, such as mice (Mus) and kangaroo rats (Dipodomys), in the dark. A forward-facing sensory pit, located on each side of the snake’s head between the eye and the nostril, serves as the animal’s heat-sensing organ. Each pit is about 1 to 5 mm (about 0.04 to 0.2 inch) deep. A thin membrane, which is extensively innervated and exquisitely sensitive to temperature increases, stretches from wall to wall inside the pit organ, where it functions like the film in a pinhole camera, registering any nearby source of infrared energy.

Human umwelt is not without its own limits and biases. Human eyes do not see the flashy advertisements to insects that flowers produce by reflecting ultraviolet light, and human ears do not hear the infrasonic calls of elephants or the ultrasonic sounds of bats. Furthermore, human noses are limited relative to those of many other mammals. Moreover, humans completely lack the sense organs for the detection of electric fields or of Earth’s geomagnetic field. Sense organs for the former occur in various species of electric fishes (such as electric eels and electric catfish), which use their sensitivity to electric fields for orientation, communication, and prey detection in murky jungle streams, while the latter exist in certain birds and insects, including homing pigeons and honeybees, which use them to navigate back to the home loft or hive. At the same time, unlike most animals, humans are endowed with superb visual acuity and colour vision as a result of having evolved large, high-performance, single-lens eyes.

Each species’ nervous system is an assemblage of special-purpose devices with species-specific and sometimes sex-specific capabilities. These capabilities become even more apparent when investigating how animals use their sense organs to acquire information for solving behavioral problems, such as territory defense or prey capture. Although an animal may possess diverse sensory organs that enable it to receive a great deal of information about the environment, in performing a particular behavioral task, it often responds to a rather small portion of the stimuli perceived. Moreover, only a subset of available stimuli reliably provides the information needed to perform a particular task. Ethologists call the crucial stimuli in any particular behavioral context “sign stimuli.”

A classic example of sign stimuli comes from the behaviour of male three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) when these fish defend their mating territories in the springtime against intrusions from rival male sticklebacks. The males differ from all other objects and forms of life in their environment in a special way: they possess an intensely red throat and belly, which serve as signals to females and other males of their health and vigour. Experiments using models of other fish species have shown that the red colour is the paramount stimulus by which a territory-holding male detects an intruder. Models that accurately imitated sticklebacks but lacked the red markings were seldom attacked, whereas models that possessed a red belly but lacked many of the other characteristics of the sticklebacks, or even of fish in general, were vigorously attacked.

Similarly, the brain cells of some toads (Bufo) are tuned to pick out those features of the environment that reliably match the toads’ natural prey items (such as earthworms). Experiments were conducted in which a hungry toad was presented with cardboard models moving horizontally around the individual at a constant distance and angular velocity. The research revealed that just two stimuli, the elongation of the object (that is, making the cardboard model longer to increase resemblance to prey) and movement in the direction of the elongation, were sufficient to initiate the toad’s prey-catching behaviour. Subsequently, the toad jerked its head after the moving model in order to place it in its frontal visual field. Other stimuli, such as the colour of the model and its velocity of movement, did not influence the toad’s ability to distinguish worms from non-worms, even though toads possess good colour and form vision. Even the broadly tuned human sensory system operates in a highly selective, yet adaptive, manner. For instance, a person hunting white-tailed deer seeks the prey almost exclusively by watching closely for deerlike movements amid the stationary trees of a forest, not by straining to sense the deer’s shape, smell, or sound.

As with sensory systems, the neural mechanisms by which animals compute solutions to behavioral problems have not evolved to function as general-purpose computers. Rather, the central nervous system (that is, the brain and spinal cord of a vertebrate or one of the segmental ganglia of an invertebrate) performs specific computations associated with the particular ecological challenges that individuals face in their environment. A helpful illustration of this point is the startle response of goldfish (Carassius auratus). If a hungry predatory fish strikes from the side, the goldfish executes a brisk swivelling movement that propels its body sideways by about one body length to dodge the predator’s attack. How does the goldfish’s central nervous system process information from the sense organs to instantaneously decide the correct direction (right or left) to move? The key neural element in the startle response of the goldfish is a single bilateral pair of neurons, called the Mauthner neurons, located in the goldfish’s hindbrain. Each neuron on the left or right receives input from the lateral line system (a row of small pressure sensors that are triggered by the disturbances caused by nearby moving objects) located on the left or right side of the goldfish’s body. Each neuron sends output to neurons that activate the musculature on the opposite side of the body. There is strong, mutual inhibition between the left and right Mauthner neurons should the left one fire in response to a mechanical stimulus from the left side of the body, for example, the right one is inactivated. Inactivation prevents it from interfering with the crucial, initial contractions of the trunk muscles on the goldfish’s right side. The net effect is that 20 milliseconds after sensing danger the goldfish assumes a C-like shape with the head and tail bent to the same side and away from the attacker. This reaction is followed 20 milliseconds later by muscle contractions on the other side of the body so that the tail straightens and the fish propels itself sideways, away from the danger. Thus, the two Mauthner neurons of the goldfish’s nervous system function exquisitely for processing information regarding predator attacks, and solving this crucial behavioral problem appears to be the only task that they perform.

Small-brained creatures, such as fishes, are not the only species whose nervous systems have evolved to solve tasks in a limited—but ecologically sufficient—way that turns difficult problems of computation into more tractable ones. For example, take the task of a human computing an interception course with a flying object, such as when a baseball player runs to catch a fly ball. In principle, the task could be solved with a set of differential equations based on the observed curvature and acceleration of the ball. What happens instead, evidently, is that the fielder finds a running path that maintains a linear optical trajectory for the ball. In other words, the player adjusts the speed and direction of his movement over the baseball field so that the trajectory of the ball appears to be straight. Unlike the more complicated differential equation approach, the linear trajectory approach does not tell the player when or where the ball will land. Consequently, the player cannot run to the point where the ball will fall and wait for it. If he did, complicating factors such as wind gusts diverting the ball might mean that he would end up in the wrong place. Instead, the player simply keeps his body on a course that will ensure interception.

Once an animal has received information about the world from its sense organs and has computed a solution to whatever behavioral problem it currently faces, it responds with a coordinated set of movements—that is, a behaviour. Any particular movement reflects the patterned activity of a specific set of muscles that work on the skeletal structures to which they are attached. The activity of these muscles is controlled by a specific set of motor neurons that in turn are controlled by sets of interneurons connected to the animal’s brain. Thus, a given behaviour is ultimately the result of a specific pattern of neural activity.

Sometimes neural control takes the form of a simple sensory reflex, in which the activity in the motor neurons is triggered by sensory neurons. This activity can be achieved directly or via one or two interneurons. Other times, as in the case of rhythmic behaviour (such as with birds flying or insects walking), a central pattern generator located in the central nervous system produces rhythms of activity in the motor neurons. Central pattern generators do not depend on sensory feedback. Feedback, however, commonly occurs to modulate and reset the rhythm of the motor output after a disturbance to the animal’s behaviour, as in the case of air turbulence disrupting the wing movements of a flying bird.

Most commonly, the neural control of behaviour takes the form of a motor command in which the initiation and modulation of activity in the motor neurons is produced by interneurons descending from the animal’s brain. The animal’s brain is where inputs from multiple sensory modalities are integrated. In this way, a sophisticated tuning of the animal’s behaviour in relation to its internal condition and its external circumstances can occur. Often the control of an animal’s movements involves an intricate synthesis of all three forms of neural control: patterned neural activity, simple sensory reflex, and motor command. As in all aspects of behavioral physiology, an immense diversity exists among animal species and behaviour patterns in the way the components of behavioral machinery have been linked over time by natural selection.


Animal Behavior & Learning

Animals can only be trained to do what they are physically capable of doing. So in order to understand how animal training works, a basic knowledge of animal behavior is very useful.

Animals can only be trained to do what they are physically capable of doing.

Definition of Behavior

Behavior is anything an animal does involving action and/or a response to a stimulus. Blinking, eating, walking, flying, vocalizing and huddling are all examples of behaviors.

Behavior is broadly defined as the way an animal acts. Swimming is an example of behavior.

Animals behave in certain ways for four basic reasons:

  • to find food and water
  • to interact in social groups
  • to avoid predators
  • to reproduce

Behaviors Help Animals Survive

Animal behaviors usually are adaptations for survival. Some behaviors, such as eating, or escaping predators are obvious survival strategies. But other behaviors, which also are important for survival, may not be as easily understood. For example why does a flamingo stand on one leg? By tucking the other leg close to its body, the bird conserves heat that would otherwise escape.

By tucking a leg close to its body and standing on the other one, a flamingo conserves heat that would otherwise escape from the exposed leg.

Ethology is the scientific study of an animal&rsquos behavior in the wild. It is easier to observe and record behavior than to interpret it. When studying animal behavior, observers must take care not to be anthropomorphic &ndash that is, to mistakenly connect human-like characteristics to animals. Although humans and animals share some traits, we have no way of knowing for sure why an animal is doing something.

Ethology is the scientific study of an animal's behavior in the wild.

Definition of Stimulus

A stimulus is a change in the environment that produces a behavioral response. It may be an object or an event perceived through an animal's senses. Stimuli may include the sight of food, the sound of a potential predator, or the smell of a mate. They may also include such daily events as nightfall and seasonal events such as decreasing temperatures. Animals respond to stimuli. Each of these stimuli elicits specific behaviors from animals.

This opossum responds to a noise stimulus by hiding in the grass.

Definition of Reflex

Reflexes are unlearned, involuntary, simple responses to specific stimuli. Reflexes are controlled by the part of the brain called the cerebellum, or primitive brain - animals do not have conscious control over them. Examples of reflexes include shivering in response to the cold, or blinking when an object flies toward the eye.

Sometimes it is difficult to differentiate between reflexes and complex behavior. Complex behavior may be made up of several reflexes. For example: walking, running, and jumping are all learned behaviors, but they involve several reflexes such as those that control balance.

Animal Intelligence

How intelligent are animals? Animals are as intelligent as they need to be to survive in their environment. They often are thought of as intelligent if they can be trained to do certain behaviors. But animals do amazing things in their own habitats. For example, certain octopuses demonstrate complex problem--solving skills. Compared to other invertebrates, octopuses may be quite intelligent. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are considered to be the most intelligent of the apes because of their ability to identify and construct tools for foraging.

Accurately rating the intelligence of animals is challenging because it is not standardized. As a result it is difficult to compare intelligences between species. Trying to measure animal intelligence using human guidelines would be inappropriate.

Chimpanzees are one of the few species that learn to use tools. They learn that when they insert a stick into an ant or termite mound, a favorable result occurs: they can more easily reach the tiny morsels.

Learned Behavior

While some animal behaviors are inborn, many are learned from experience. Scientists define learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior as the result of experience. For the most part, learning occurs gradually and in steps.

An animal&rsquos genetic makeup and body structure determine what kinds of behavior are possible for it to learn. An animal can learn to do only what it is physically capable of doing. A dolphin cannot learn to ride a bicycle, because it has no legs to work the pedals, and no fingers to grasp the handle bars.

An animal learns and is able to respond and adapt to a changing environment. If an environment changes, an animal's behaviors may no longer achieve results. The animal is forced to change its behavior. It learns which responses get desired results, and changes its behavior accordingly. For purposes of training, an animal trainer manipulates the animal's environment to achieve the desired results.

Observational Learning

Animals often learn through observation, that is, by watching other animals. Observational learning can occur with no outside reinforcement. The animal simply learns by observing and mimicking. Animals are able to learn individual behaviors as well as entire behavioral repertoires through observation.

Observational learning can occur with no outside reinforcement. The animal simply learns through observing and mimicking.

At SeaWorld, killer whale calves continually follow their mothers and try to imitate everything they do. This includes show behaviors. By a calf's first birthday, it may have learned more than a dozen show behaviors just by mimicking its mother.

Killer whale calves continually follow their mothers and try to imitate everything they do including show behaviors.

At Busch Gardens, a young chimpanzee learns foraging and social behavior from watching its mother and other members of the group. Baby black rhinos (Diceros bicornis) are especially close to their mothers. A calf relies on its mother's protection until it is completely weaned. This close tie allows young rhinos to learn defense and foraging behavior.

Adult animals trained alongside experienced animals may learn a faster rate than if they were trained without them.

Classical Conditioning

One of the simplest types of learning is called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is based on a stimulus (a change in the environment) producing a response from the animal.

Over time, a response to a stimulus may be conditioned. (Conditioning is another word for learning.) By pairing a new stimulus with a familiar one, an animal can be conditioned to respond to the new stimulus. The conditioned response is typically a reflex - a behavior that requires no thought.

One of the best known examples of classical conditioning may be Pavlov's experiments on domestic dogs. Russian behaviorist Ivan Pavlov noticed that the smell of meat made his dogs drool. He began to ring a bell just before introducing the meat. After repeating this several times, Pavlov rang the bell without introducing the meat. The dogs drooled when they heard the bell. Over time, they came to associate the sound of the bell with the smell of food. The bell became the stimulus that caused the drooling response.

Operant Conditioning

Like classical conditioning, operant conditioning involves a stimulus and a response. But unlike classical conditioning, in operant conditioning the response is a behavior that requires thought and an action. The response is also followed by a consequence known as a reinforcer.

In operant conditioning, an animal's behavior is conditioned by the consequences that follow. That is, a behavior will happen either more or less often, depending on its results. When an animal performs a particular behavior that produces a favorable result, the animal is likely to repeat the behavior. So, in operant conditioning, an animal is conditioned as it operates on the environment.

When an animal performs a particular behavior that produces a favorable result, the animal is likely to repeat the behavior.

Animals learn by the principles of operant conditioning every day. For example, woodpeckers find insects to eat by pecking holes in trees with their beaks. One day, a woodpecker finds a particular tree that offers an especially abundant supply of the bird's favorite bugs. The woodpecker is likely to return to that tree again and again.

Humans learn by the same principles. We learn that when we push the power button on the remote control, the television comes on. When we put coins into a vending machine, a snack comes out.

Animal trainers apply the principles of operant conditioning. When an animal performs a behavior that the trainer wants, the trainer administers a favorable consequence.

Positive Reinforcement

A favorable consequence is a positive stimulus - something desirable to the animal. When an animal performs a behavior that produces a positive result, the animal is likely to repeat that behavior in the near future.

The positive result is termed a positive reinforcer because it reinforces, or strengthens the behavior. When a positive reinforcer immediately follows a behavior, it increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. It must immediately follow the behavior in order to be effective.

Stimulus Discrimination

As an animal learns behaviors, it also learns the various situations to which they apply. The more behaviors an animal learns, the more it must learn to make distinctions - that is to discriminate - among the situations.

Discrimination is the tendency for learned behavior to occur in one situation, but not in others. Animals learn which behavior to use for each different stimulus.

Shaping of Behavior

Most behaviors cannot be learned all at once, but develop in steps. This step-by-step learning process is called shaping.

Many human behaviors are learned through shaping. For example, most begin by riding a tricycle. The child graduates to a two-wheeler bicycle with training wheels, and eventually masters a much larger bicycle, perhaps one with multiple speeds. Each step towards the final goal of riding a bicycle is reinforcing.

Animals learn complex behaviors through shaping. Each step in the learning process is called an approximation. An animal may be reinforced for each successive approximation toward the final goal of the desired trained behavior.

Animals learn complex behaviors through shaping.

Extinction of Behavior

If a behavior is not reinforced, it decreases. Eventually it is extinguished altogether. This is called extinction. Animal trainers use the technique of extinction to eliminate undesired behaviors. (In animal training, when a trainer requests a particular behavior and the animal gives no response, this is also considered an undesired behavior.) To eliminate the behavior, they simply do not reinforce it. Over time, the animal learns that a particular behavior is not producing a desired effect. The animal discontinues the behavior.

When using the extinction technique, it is important to identify what stimuli are reinforcing for an animal. The trainer must be careful not to present a positive reinforcer after an undesirable behavior. The best way to avoid reinforcing an undesired behavior is to try to give no stimulus at all.


A Very Short Introduction to Animal Behaviour

This book is a latecomer to the hugely successful Very Short Introduction series by Oxford University Press dating back to 1995. Earlier books have covered psychology, intelligence, emotion, the brain, game theory, networks, and hormones, but this seems to be the first book to concentrate on the behavior of animals.

This handy pocketbook, which easily fits into a pocket or small bag, has 122 small pages of text and is broken down into 8 chapters with 29 illustrations. The book is written in an easy style and there are a surprising number of entertaining examples given for each topic. The inside front cover states: “a wide range of animals, including honeybees, fish, and birds” are examined however, I found that most examples came from mammals, birds, and insects. The emphasis on insects is understandable, given the author’s expertise in pheromones, but there are few examples from other invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles. Because each chapter is so short, the book moves swiftly from one example to another. Wyatt helpfully points to 11 books for further general reading and then gives an additional 3 to 7 books for each chapter. About a dozen references are listed for each chapter however, I found it rather frustrating that only about half the examples are directly referenced. I suppose this must be the format of the Very Short Introduction series however, this means that one is unable to easily track down case studies of interest. On the other hand, Wyatt does do a good job of describing opportunities for citizen science, popular magazines, online videos, podcasts, and blogs. Recurring themes are that animal behavior is adaptive and that simple rules often govern behavior.

The first chapter serves as an introduction and provides a brief history to the subject, starting with experimental psychology in the early 1900s, through ethology and N. Tinbergen’s 4 questions, and then on to behavioral ecology, with its evolutionary emphasis. Chapter 2 covers neural biology and hormones, describing how animals sense their environment (including conspecifics) and respond. Chapter 3 deals with the development of behavior and provides a balanced description of the effect of nature-nurture, including imprinting, phenotypic plasticity, and maternal effects. This was where I learned the most in terms of genetic control of behavior and it is one of the longest chapters. Learning and animal culture are introduced in Chapter 4, where Wyatt raises the question of animal intelligence versus insight. Here he postulates that studying animal behavior could aid us in better understanding human behavior. Chapter 5 covers communication, with extensive detail on honeybee dances and vervet monkey alarm calls. Honesty and deception are described for several species and Wyatt states that replication of studies is particularly warranted in animal behavior research with small sample sizes. Chapter 6 is the longest and outlines key findings in behavioral ecology, including costs, benefits, and trade-offs in individual behavior, sexual selection, kin selection, and the evolution of cooperative breeding, eusociality, nest parasitism, mating systems, and parental care. New genomic technologies should allow us to identify the genetic basis to varying behavioral traits. In the shortest chapter (7), Wyatt delves into collective behavior, both animal and human. Here he carefully explains how the behavior of only a few individuals can control an entire flock or school. He also shows how modeling of animal swarming behavior has been applied to routing problems for telecommunications, the Internet, and public infrastructure design. The final chapter (8) is concerned with human-animal interactions, both positive and negative. Positive interactions involve companion animals such as dogs and cats while conflict arises with pests in agriculture, animal conservation, and captive animals. Wyatt makes the point that anthropogenic global climate change affects the behavior of wild animals everywhere and lays the responsibility for future survival of many species squarely at the reader’s feet. As he states in the introduction to the field of animal behavior: “we still need good observations, good questions, thoughtful experiments, and a feeling for the organism” (p. 12).

I found it odd that sometimes Wyatt gives the nationality of a scientist whose work he describes, and sometimes not. He suggests simple experiments that the reader can perform to witness moths’ response to ultrasonic sounds and feeding ducks distributing themselves according to the ideal free distribution. He also keeps the reader’s interest by relating findings to human behavior, where relevant.

Who would benefit from reading this book? My impression is that the series is written by experts to stimulate general thought in the various subjects. As an academic, I would say that anyone interested in animal behavior will find recent developments in the field, especially in genomics. I would definitely encourage new postgraduate students lacking a background in animal behavior to use the book as an introductory guide to further reading. As a mammalogist, I was gratified to see so many mammalian examples, with star performers being rats and mice, meerkats, and surprisingly, domestic sheep. Finally, I found that this little book successfully made me reflect on just why I find many facets of animal behavior so fascinating. And all for a very economical price.


Ecological and ethological approaches to the study of behaviour

The natural history approach of Darwin and his predecessors gradually evolved into the twin sciences of animal ecology, the study of the interactions between an animal and its environment, and ethology, the biological study of animal behaviour. The roots of ethology can be traced to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when scientists from several countries began exploring the behaviours of selected vertebrate species: dogs by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov rodents by American psychologists John B. Watson, Edward Tolman, and Karl Lashley birds by American psychologist B.F. Skinner and primates by German American psychologist Wolfgang Köhler and American psychologist Robert Yerkes. The studies were carried out in laboratories, in the case of dogs, rodents and pigeons, or in artificial colonies and laboratories, in the case of primates. These studies were oriented toward psychological and physiological questions rather than ecological or evolutionary ones.

It was not until the 1930s that field naturalists—such as English biologist Julian Huxley, Austrian zoologist Konrad Lorenz, and Dutch-born British zoologist and ethologist Nikolaas Tinbergen studying birds and Austrian zoologist Karl von Frisch and American entomologist William Morton Wheeler examining insects—gained prominence and returned to broadly biological studies of animal behaviour. These individuals, the founders of ethology, had direct experience with the richness of the behavioral repertoires of animals living in their natural surroundings. Their “return to nature” approach was, to a large extent, a reaction against the tendency prevalent among psychologists to study just a few behavioral phenomena observed in a handful of species that were kept in impoverished laboratory environments.

The goal of the psychologists was to formulate behavioral hypotheses that claimed to have general applications (e.g., about learning as a single, all-purpose phenomenon). Later they would proceed using a deductive approach by testing their hypotheses through experimentation on captive animals. In contrast, the ethologists advocated an inductive approach, one that begins with observing and describing what animals do and then proceeds to address a general question: Why do these animals behave as they do? By this they meant “How do the specific behaviours of these animals lead to differential reproduction?” Since its birth in the 1930s, the ethological approach—which stresses the direct observation of a broad array of animal species in nature, embraces the vast variety of behaviours found in the animal kingdom, and commits to investigating behaviour from a broad biological perspective—has proved highly effective.

One of Tinbergen’s most important contributions to the study of animal behaviour was to stress that ethology is like any other branch of biology, in that a comprehensive study of any behaviour must address four categories of questions, which today are called “levels of analysis,” including causation, ontogeny, function, and evolutionary history. Although each of these four approaches requires a different kind of scientific investigation, all contribute to solving the enduring puzzle of how and why animals, including humans, behave as they do. A familiar example of animal behaviour—a dog wagging its tail—serves to illustrate the levels of analysis framework. When a dog senses the approach of a companion (dog or human), it stands still, fixates on the approaching individual, raises its tail, and begins swishing it from side to side. Why does this dog wag its tail? To answer this general question, four specific questions must be addressed.

With respect to causation, the question becomes: What makes the behaviour happen? To answer this question, it becomes important to identify the physiological and cognitive mechanisms that underlie the tail-wagging behaviour. For example, the way the dog’s hormonal system adjusts its responsiveness to stimuli, how the dog’s nervous system transmits signals from its brain to its tail, and how the dog’s skeletal-muscular system generates tail movements need to be understood. Causation can also be addressed from the perspective of cognitive processes (that is, knowing how the dog processes information when greeting a companion with tail wagging). This perspective includes determining how the dog senses the approach of another individual, how it recognizes that individual as a friend, and how it decides to wag its tail. The dog’s possible intentions (for example, receiving a pat on the head), feelings, and awareness of self become the focus of the investigation.

With respect to ontogeny, the question becomes: How does the dog’s tail-wagging behaviour develop? The focus here is on investigating the underlying developmental mechanisms that lead to the occurrence of the behaviour. The answer derives from understanding how the sensory-motor mechanisms producing the behaviour are shaped as the dog matures from a puppy into a functional adult animal. Both internal and external factors can shape the behavioral machinery, so understanding the development of the dog’s tail-wagging behaviour requires investigating the influence of the dog’s genes and its experiences.

With respect to function: How does the dog’s tail-wagging behaviour contribute to genetic success? The focus of this question is rooted in the subfield called behavioral ecology the answer requires investigating the effects of tail wagging on the dog’s survival and reproduction (that is, determining how the tail-wagging behaviour helps the dog survive to adulthood, mate, and rear young in order to perpetuate its genes).

Lastly, with respect to evolutionary history, the question becomes: How did tail-wagging behaviour evolve from its ancestral form to its present form? To address this question, scientists must hypothesize evolutionary antecedent behaviours in ancestral species and attempt to reconstruct the sequence of events over evolutionary time that led from the origin of the trait to the one observed today. For example, an antecedent behaviour to tail wagging by dogs might be tail-raising and tail-vibrating behaviours in ancestral wolves. Perhaps when a prey animal was sighted, such behaviours were used to signal other pack members that a chase was about to begin.

Both the biological and the physical sciences seek explanations of natural phenomena in physicochemical terms. The biological sciences (which include the study of behaviour), however, have an extra dimension relative to the physical sciences. In biology, physicochemical explanations are addressed by Tinbergen’s questions on causation and ontogeny, which taken together are known as “proximate” causes. The extra dimension of biology seeks explanations of biological phenomena in terms of function and evolutionary history, which together are known as “ultimate” causes. In biology, it is legitimate to ask questions concerning the use of this life process today (its function) and how it came to be over geologic time (its evolutionary history). More specifically, the words use and came to be are applied in special ways, namely “promoting genetic success” and “evolved by means of natural selection.” In physics and chemistry, these types of questions are out of bounds. For example, questions concerning the use of the movements of a dog’s tail are reasonable, whereas questions regarding the use of the movements of an ocean’s tides are more metaphysical.


Contents

The term ethology derives from the Greek language: ἦθος, ethos meaning "character" and -λογία , -logia meaning "the study of". The term was first popularized by American myrmecologist (a person who studies ants) William Morton Wheeler in 1902. [6]

The beginnings of ethology Edit

Because ethology is considered a topic of biology, ethologists have been concerned particularly with the evolution of behaviour and its understanding in terms of natural selection. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals influenced many ethologists. He pursued his interest in behaviour by encouraging his protégé George Romanes, who investigated animal learning and intelligence using an anthropomorphic method, anecdotal cognitivism, that did not gain scientific support. [7]

Other early ethologists, such as Charles O. Whitman, Oskar Heinroth, Wallace Craig and Julian Huxley, instead concentrated on behaviours that can be called instinctive, or natural, in that they occur in all members of a species under specified circumstances. Their beginning for studying the behaviour of a new species was to construct an ethogram (a description of the main types of behaviour with their frequencies of occurrence). This provided an objective, cumulative database of behaviour, which subsequent researchers could check and supplement. [6]

Growth of the field Edit

Due to the work of Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen, ethology developed strongly in continental Europe during the years prior to World War II. [6] After the war, Tinbergen moved to the University of Oxford, and ethology became stronger in the UK, with the additional influence of William Thorpe, Robert Hinde, and Patrick Bateson at the Sub-department of Animal Behaviour of the University of Cambridge. [8] In this period, too, ethology began to develop strongly in North America.

Lorenz, Tinbergen, and von Frisch were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973 for their work of developing ethology. [9]

Ethology is now a well-recognized scientific discipline, and has a number of journals covering developments in the subject, such as Animal Behaviour, Animal Welfare, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, Animal Cognition, Behaviour, Behavioral Ecology and Journal of Ethology, Ethology. In 1972, the International Society for Human Ethology was founded to promote exchange of knowledge and opinions concerning human behaviour gained by applying ethological principles and methods and published their journal, The Human Ethology Bulletin. In 2008, in a paper published in the journal Behaviour, ethologist Peter Verbeek introduced the term "Peace Ethology" as a sub-discipline of Human Ethology that is concerned with issues of human conflict, conflict resolution, reconciliation, war, peacemaking, and peacekeeping behaviour. [10]

Social ethology and recent developments Edit

In 1972, the English ethologist John H. Crook distinguished comparative ethology from social ethology, and argued that much of the ethology that had existed so far was really comparative ethology—examining animals as individuals—whereas, in the future, ethologists would need to concentrate on the behaviour of social groups of animals and the social structure within them. [11]

E. O. Wilson's book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis appeared in 1975, [12] and since that time, the study of behaviour has been much more concerned with social aspects. It has also been driven by the stronger, but more sophisticated, Darwinism associated with Wilson, Robert Trivers, and W. D. Hamilton. The related development of behavioural ecology has also helped transform ethology. [13] Furthermore, a substantial rapprochement with comparative psychology has occurred, so the modern scientific study of behaviour offers a more or less seamless spectrum of approaches: from animal cognition to more traditional comparative psychology, ethology, sociobiology, and behavioural ecology. In 2020, Dr. Tobias Starzak and Professor Albert Newen from the Institute of Philosophy II at the Ruhr University Bochum postulated that animals may have beliefs. [14]

Comparative psychology also studies animal behaviour, but, as opposed to ethology, is construed as a sub-topic of psychology rather than as one of biology. Historically, where comparative psychology has included research on animal behaviour in the context of what is known about human psychology, ethology involves research on animal behaviour in the context of what is known about animal anatomy, physiology, neurobiology, and phylogenetic history. Furthermore, early comparative psychologists concentrated on the study of learning and tended to research behaviour in artificial situations, whereas early ethologists concentrated on behaviour in natural situations, tending to describe it as instinctive.

The two approaches are complementary rather than competitive, but they do result in different perspectives, and occasionally conflicts of opinion about matters of substance. In addition, for most of the twentieth century, comparative psychology developed most strongly in North America, while ethology was stronger in Europe. From a practical standpoint, early comparative psychologists concentrated on gaining extensive knowledge of the behaviour of very few species. Ethologists were more interested in understanding behaviour across a wide range of species to facilitate principled comparisons across taxonomic groups. Ethologists have made much more use of such cross-species comparisons than comparative psychologists have.

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines instinct as "A largely inheritable and unalterable tendency of an organism to make a complex and specific response to environmental stimuli without involving reason". [15]

Fixed action patterns Edit

An important development, associated with the name of Konrad Lorenz though probably due more to his teacher, Oskar Heinroth, was the identification of fixed action patterns. Lorenz popularized these as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of identifiable stimuli called sign stimuli or "releasing stimuli". Fixed action patterns are now considered to be instinctive behavioural sequences that are relatively invariant within the species and that almost inevitably run to completion. [16]

One example of a releaser is the beak movements of many bird species performed by newly hatched chicks, which stimulates the mother to regurgitate food for her offspring. [17] Other examples are the classic studies by Tinbergen on the egg-retrieval behaviour and the effects of a "supernormal stimulus" on the behaviour of graylag geese. [18] [19]

One investigation of this kind was the study of the waggle dance ("dance language") in bee communication by Karl von Frisch. [20]

Habituation Edit

Habituation is a simple form of learning and occurs in many animal taxa. It is the process whereby an animal ceases responding to a stimulus. Often, the response is an innate behaviour. Essentially, the animal learns not to respond to irrelevant stimuli. For example, prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) give alarm calls when predators approach, causing all individuals in the group to quickly scramble down burrows. When prairie dog towns are located near trails used by humans, giving alarm calls every time a person walks by is expensive in terms of time and energy. Habituation to humans is therefore an important adaptation in this context. [21] [22] [23]

Associative learning Edit

Associative learning in animal behaviour is any learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus. [24] The first studies of associative learning were made by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who observed that dogs trained to associate food with the ringing of a bell would salivate on hearing the bell. [25]

Imprinting Edit

Imprinting enables the young to discriminate the members of their own species, vital for reproductive success. This important type of learning only takes place in a very limited period of time. Lorenz observed that the young of birds such as geese and chickens followed their mothers spontaneously from almost the first day after they were hatched, and he discovered that this response could be imitated by an arbitrary stimulus if the eggs were incubated artificially and the stimulus were presented during a critical period that continued for a few days after hatching. [26]

Cultural learning Edit

Observational learning Edit

Imitation Edit

Imitation is an advanced behaviour whereby an animal observes and exactly replicates the behaviour of another. The National Institutes of Health reported that capuchin monkeys preferred the company of researchers who imitated them to that of researchers who did not. The monkeys not only spent more time with their imitators but also preferred to engage in a simple task with them even when provided with the option of performing the same task with a non-imitator. [27] Imitation has been observed in recent research on chimpanzees not only did these chimps copy the actions of another individual, when given a choice, the chimps preferred to imitate the actions of the higher-ranking elder chimpanzee as opposed to the lower-ranking young chimpanzee. [28]

Stimulus and local enhancement Edit

There are various ways animals can learn using observational learning but without the process of imitation. One of these is stimulus enhancement in which individuals become interested in an object as the result of observing others interacting with the object. [29] Increased interest in an object can result in object manipulation which allows for new object-related behaviours by trial-and-error learning. Haggerty (1909) devised an experiment in which a monkey climbed up the side of a cage, placed its arm into a wooden chute, and pulled a rope in the chute to release food. Another monkey was provided an opportunity to obtain the food after watching a monkey go through this process on four occasions. The monkey performed a different method and finally succeeded after trial-and-error. [30] Another example familiar to some cat and dog owners is the ability of their animals to open doors. The action of humans operating the handle to open the door results in the animals becoming interested in the handle and then by trial-and-error, they learn to operate the handle and open the door.

In local enhancement, a demonstrator attracts an observer's attention to a particular location. [31] Local enhancement has been observed to transmit foraging information among birds, rats and pigs. [32] The stingless bee (Trigona corvina) uses local enhancement to locate other members of their colony and food resources. [33]

Social transmission Edit

A well-documented example of social transmission of a behaviour occurred in a group of macaques on Hachijojima Island, Japan. The macaques lived in the inland forest until the 1960s, when a group of researchers started giving them potatoes on the beach: soon, they started venturing onto the beach, picking the potatoes from the sand, and cleaning and eating them. [12] About one year later, an individual was observed bringing a potato to the sea, putting it into the water with one hand, and cleaning it with the other. This behaviour was soon expressed by the individuals living in contact with her when they gave birth, this behaviour was also expressed by their young - a form of social transmission. [34]

Teaching Edit

Teaching is a highly specialized aspect of learning in which the "teacher" (demonstrator) adjusts their behaviour to increase the probability of the "pupil" (observer) achieving the desired end-result of the behaviour. For example, killer whales are known to intentionally beach themselves to catch pinniped prey. [35] Mother killer whales teach their young to catch pinnipeds by pushing them onto the shore and encouraging them to attack the prey. Because the mother killer whale is altering her behaviour to help her offspring learn to catch prey, this is evidence of teaching. [35] Teaching is not limited to mammals. Many insects, for example, have been observed demonstrating various forms of teaching to obtain food. Ants, for example, will guide each other to food sources through a process called "tandem running," in which an ant will guide a companion ant to a source of food. [36] It has been suggested that the pupil ant is able to learn this route to obtain food in the future or teach the route to other ants. This behaviour of teaching is also exemplified by crows, specifically New Caledonian crows. The adults (whether individual or in families) teach their young adolescent offspring how to construct and utilize tools. For example, Pandanus branches are used to extract insects and other larvae from holes within trees. [37]

Individual reproduction is the most important phase in the proliferation of individuals or genes within a species: for this reason, there exist complex mating rituals, which can be very complex even if they are often regarded as fixed action patterns. The stickleback's complex mating ritual, studied by Tinbergen, is regarded as a notable example. [38]

Often in social life, animals fight for the right to reproduce, as well as social supremacy. A common example of fighting for social and sexual supremacy is the so-called pecking order among poultry. Every time a group of poultry cohabitate for a certain time length, they establish a pecking order. In these groups, one chicken dominates the others and can peck without being pecked. A second chicken can peck all the others except the first, and so on. Chickens higher in the pecking order may at times be distinguished by their healthier appearance when compared to lower level chickens. [ citation needed ] While the pecking order is establishing, frequent and violent fights can happen, but once established, it is broken only when other individuals enter the group, in which case the pecking order re-establishes from scratch. [39]

Several animal species, including humans, tend to live in groups. Group size is a major aspect of their social environment. Social life is probably a complex and effective survival strategy. It may be regarded as a sort of symbiosis among individuals of the same species: a society is composed of a group of individuals belonging to the same species living within well-defined rules on food management, role assignments and reciprocal dependence.

When biologists interested in evolution theory first started examining social behaviour, some apparently unanswerable questions arose, such as how the birth of sterile castes, like in bees, could be explained through an evolving mechanism that emphasizes the reproductive success of as many individuals as possible, or why, amongst animals living in small groups like squirrels, an individual would risk its own life to save the rest of the group. These behaviours may be examples of altruism. [40] Of course, not all behaviours are altruistic, as indicated by the table below. For example, revengeful behaviour was at one point claimed to have been observed exclusively in Homo sapiens. However, other species have been reported to be vengeful including chimpanzees, [41] as well as anecdotal reports of vengeful camels. [42]

Classification of social behaviours
Type of behaviour Effect on the donor Effect on the receiver
Egoistic Increases fitness Decreases fitness
Cooperative Increases fitness Increases fitness
Altruistic Decreases fitness Increases fitness
Revengeful Decreases fitness Decreases fitness

Benefits and costs of group living Edit

One advantage of group living can be decreased predation. If the number of predator attacks stays the same despite increasing prey group size, each prey may have a reduced risk of predator attacks through the dilution effect. [13] [ page needed ] Further, according to the selfish herd theory, the fitness benefits associated with group living vary depending on the location of an individual within the group. The theory suggests that conspecifics positioned at the centre of a group will reduce the likelihood predations while those at the periphery will become more vulnerable to attack. [45] Additionally, a predator that is confused by a mass of individuals can find it more difficult to single out one target. For this reason, the zebra's stripes offer not only camouflage in a habitat of tall grasses, but also the advantage of blending into a herd of other zebras. [46] In groups, prey can also actively reduce their predation risk through more effective defence tactics, or through earlier detection of predators through increased vigilance. [13]

Another advantage of group living can be an increased ability to forage for food. Group members may exchange information about food sources between one another, facilitating the process of resource location. [13] [ page needed ] Honeybees are a notable example of this, using the waggle dance to communicate the location of flowers to the rest of their hive. [47] Predators also receive benefits from hunting in groups, through using better strategies and being able to take down larger prey. [13] [ page needed ]

Some disadvantages accompany living in groups. Living in close proximity to other animals can facilitate the transmission of parasites and disease, and groups that are too large may also experience greater competition for resources and mates. [48]

Group size Edit

Theoretically, social animals should have optimal group sizes that maximize the benefits and minimize the costs of group living. However, in nature, most groups are stable at slightly larger than optimal sizes. [13] [ page needed ] Because it generally benefits an individual to join an optimally-sized group, despite slightly decreasing the advantage for all members, groups may continue to increase in size until it is more advantageous to remain alone than to join an overly full group. [49]

Niko Tinbergen argued that ethology always needed to include four kinds of explanation in any instance of behaviour: [50] [51]

  • Function – How does the behaviour affect the animal's chances of survival and reproduction? Why does the animal respond that way instead of some other way?
  • Causation – What are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning?
  • Development – How does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the animal to display the behaviour?
  • Evolutionary history – How does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have begun through the process of phylogeny?

These explanations are complementary rather than mutually exclusive—all instances of behaviour require an explanation at each of these four levels. For example, the function of eating is to acquire nutrients (which ultimately aids survival and reproduction), but the immediate cause of eating is hunger (causation). Hunger and eating are evolutionarily ancient and are found in many species (evolutionary history), and develop early within an organism's lifespan (development). It is easy to confuse such questions—for example, to argue that people eat because they're hungry and not to acquire nutrients—without realizing that the reason people experience hunger is because it causes them to acquire nutrients. [52]


45.6A: Introduction to Animal Behavior - Biology

Animal behavior is the bridge between the molecular and physiological aspects of biology and the ecological. Behavior is the link between organisms and environment and between the nervous system, and the ecosystem. Behavior is one of the most important properties of animal life. Behavior plays a critical role in biological adaptations. Behavior is how we humans define our own lives. Behavior is that part of an organism by which it interacts with its environment. Behavior is as much a part of an organisms as its coat, wings etc. The beauty of an animal includes its behavioral attributes.

For the same reasons that we study the universe and subatomic particles there is intrinsic interest in the study of animals. In view of the amount of time that television devotes to animal films and the amount of money that people spend on nature books there is much more public interest in animal behavior than in neutrons and neurons. If human curiosity drives research, then animal behavior should be near the top of our priorities.

Research on animal behavior and behavioral ecology has been burgeoning in recent years despite below inflation increases (and often decreases) in research funding. Two of our journals Animal Behaviour and Behavior Ecology and Sociobiology rank in the top six behavioral science AND zoological journals in terms of impact as measured by the Science Citation Index. From 1985 to 1990 Animal Behaviour has grown from quarterly to monthly publication and its page budget has more than doubled. Many related journals have increased their size and frequency of publication in the same period. Ours is an active and vital field.

While the study of animal behavior is important as a scientific field on its own, our science has made important contributions to other disciplines with applications to the study of human behavior, to the neurosciences, to the environment and resource management, to the study of animal welfare and to the education of future generations of scientists.

A. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN SOCIETY

  1. Many problems in human society are often related to the interaction of environment and behavior or genetics and behavior. The fields of socioecology and animal behavior deal with the issue of environment behavioral interactions both at an evolutionary level and a proximate level. Increasingly social scientists are turning to animal behavior as a framework in which to interpret human society and to understand possible causes of societal problems. (e.g. Daly and Wilson's book on human homicide is based on an evolutionary analysis from animal research. Many studies on child abuse utilize theory and data from studies on infanticide in animals.)
  2. Research by de Waal on chimpanzees and monkeys has illustrated the importance of cooperation and reconciliation in social groups. This work provides new perspectives by which to view and ameliorate aggressive behavior among human beings.
  3. The methodology applied to study animal behavior has had a tremendous impact in psychology and the social sciences. Jean Piaget began his career with the study of snails, and he extended the use of careful behavioral observations and descriptions to his landmark studies on human cognitive development. J. B. Watson began his study of behavior by observing gulls. Aspects of experimental design, observation techniques, attention to nonverbal communication signals were often developed in animal behavior studies before their application to studies of human behavior. The behavioral study of humans would be much diminished today without the influence of animal research.
  4. Charles Darwin's work on emotional expression in animals has had an important influence on many psychologists, such as Paul Ekman, who study human emotional behavior.
  5. Harry Harlow's work on social development in rhesus monkeys has been of major importance to theories of child development and to psychiatry. The work of Overmier, Maier and Seligman on learned helplessness has had a similar effect on child development and psychiatry.
  6. The comparative study of behavior over a wide range of species can provide insights into influences affecting human behavior. For example, the woolly spider monkey in Brazil displays no overt aggressive behavior among group members. We might learn how to minimize human aggression if we understood how this species of monkey avoids aggression. If we want to have human fathers be more involved in infant care, we can study the conditions under which paternal care has appeared in other species like the California mouse or in marmosets and tamarins. Studies of various models of the ontogeny of communication in birds and mammals have had direct influence on the development of theories and the research directions in the study of child language. The richness of developmental processes in behavior, including multiple sources and the consequences of experience are significant in understanding processes of human development.
  7. Understanding the differences in adaptability between species that can live in a variety of habitats versus those that are restricted to limited habitats can lead to an understanding of how we might improve human adaptability as our environments change.
  8. Research by animal behaviorists on animal sensory systems has led to practical applications for extending human sensory systems. Griffin's demonstrations on how bats use sonar to locate objects has led directly to the use of sonar techniques in a wide array of applications from the military to fetal diagnostics.
  9. Studies of chimpanzees using language analogues have led to new technology (computer keyboards using arbitrary symbols) that have been applied successfully to teaching language to disadvantaged human populations.
  10. Basic research on circadian and other endogenous rhythms in animals has led to research relevant to human factors and productivity in areas such as coping with jet-lag or changing from one shift to another.
  11. Research on animals has developed many of the important concepts relating to coping with stress, for example studies of the importance of prediction and control on coping behavior.

B. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND NEUROBIOLOGY

  1. Sir Charles Sherrington, an early Nobel Prize winner, developed a model for the structure and function of the nervous system based only on close behavioral observation and deduction. Seventy years of subsequent neurobiological research has completely supported the inferences Sherrington made from behavioral observation.
  2. Neuroethology, the integration of animal behavior and the neurosciences, provides important frameworks for hypothesizing neural mechanisms. Careful behavioral data allow neurobiologists to narrow the scope of their studies and to focus on relevant input stimuli and attend to relevant responses. In many case the use of species specific natural stimuli has led to new insights about neural structure and function that contrast with results obtained using non-relevant stimuli.
  3. Recent work in animal behavior has demonstrated a downward influence of behavior and social organization on physiological and cellular processes. Variations in social environment can inhibit or stimulate ovulation, produce menstrual synchrony, induce miscarriages and so on. Other animal studies show that the quality of the social and behavioral environment have a direct effect on immune system functioning. Researchers in physiology and immunology need to be guided by these behavioral and social influences to properly control their own studies.

C. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND THE ENVIRONMENT, CONSERVATION AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

  1. The behavior of animals often provides the first clues or early warning signs of environmental degradation. Changes in sexual and other behavior occur much sooner and at lower levels of environmental disruption than changes in reproductive outcomes and population size. If we wait to see if numbers of animal populations are declining, it may be too late to take measures to save the environment. Studies of natural behavior in the field are vital to provide baseline data for future environmental monitoring. For example, the Environmental Protection Agency uses disruptions in swimming behavior of minnows as an index of possible pesticide pollution.
  2. Basic research on how salmon migrate back to their home streams started more than 40 years ago by Arthur Hasler has taught us much about the mechanisms of migration. This information has also been valuable in preserving the salmon industry in the Pacific Northwest and applications of Hasler's results has led to the development of a salmon fishing industry in the Great Lakes. Basic animal behavior research can have important economic implications.
  3. Animal behaviorists have described variables involved in insect reproduction and host plant location leading to the development of non-toxic pheromones for insect pest control that avoid the need for toxic pesticides. Understanding of predator prey relationships can lead to the introduction of natural predators on prey species.
  4. Knowledge of honeybee foraging behavior can be applied to mechanisms of pollination which in turn is important for plant breeding and propagation.
  5. An understanding of foraging behavior in animals can lead to an understanding of forest regeneration. Many animals serve as seed dispersers and are thus essential for the propagation of tree species and essential for habitat preservation.
  6. The conservation of endangered species requires that we know enough about natural behavior (migratory patterns, home range size, interactions with other groups, foraging demands, reproductive behavior, communication, etc) in order to develop effective reserves and effective protection measures. Relocation or reintroduction of animals (such as the golden lion tamarin) is not possible without detailed knowledge of a species' natural history. With the increasing importance of environmental programs and human management of populations of rare species, both in captivity and in the natural habitat, animal behavior research becomes increasingly important. Many of the world's leading conservationists have a background in animal behavior or behavioral ecology.
  7. Basic behavioral studies on reproductive behavior have led to improved captive breeding methods for whooping cranes, golden lion tamarins, cotton-top tamarins, and many other endangered species. Captive breeders who were ignorant of the species' natural reproductive behavior were generally unsuccessful.

D. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND ANIMAL WELFARE

  1. Our society has placed increased emphasis on the welfare of research and exhibit animals. US law now requires attending to exercise requirements for dogs and the psychological well-being of nonhuman primates. Animal welfare without knowledge is impossible. Animal behavior researchers look at the behavior and well-being of animals in lab and field. We have provided expert testimony to bring about reasonable and effective standards for the care and well-being of research animals.
  2. Further developments in animal welfare will require input from animal behavior specialists. Improved conditions for farm animals, breeding of endangered species, proper care of companion animals all require a strong behavioral data base.

E. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND SCIENCE EDUCATION

For many students, especially females, these courses are their first introduction to behavioral biology. Many female undergraduates approach us to discuss graduate school and research careers after taking these courses. 75% or more of our graduate applicants are female. A good proportion of students enrolled in animal behavior courses become motivated for research careers, but there is little hope to offer them that they will actually be able to become practicing scientists when they finish due to severe limitations on research funding.


Contents

The history of zoology traces the study of the animal kingdom from ancient to modern times. Prehistoric man needed to study the animals and plants in his environment in order to exploit them and survive. There are cave paintings, engravings and sculptures in France dating back 15,000 years showing bison, horses and deer in carefully rendered detail. Similar images from other parts of the world illustrated mostly the animals hunted for food but also the savage animals. [2]

The Neolithic Revolution, which is characterized by the domestication of animals, continued over the period of Antiquity. Ancient knowledge of wildlife is illustrated by the realistic depictions of wild and domestic animals in the Near East, Mesopotamia and Egypt, including husbandry practices and techniques, hunting and fishing. The invention of writing is reflected in zoology by the presence of animals in Egyptian hieroglyphics. [3]

Although the concept of zoology as a single coherent field arose much later, the zoological sciences emerged from natural history reaching back to the biological works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world. Aristotle, in the fourth century BC, looked at animals as living organisms, studying their structure, development and vital phenomena. He divided them into two groups, animals with blood, equivalent to our concept of vertebrates, and animals without blood (invertebrates). He spent two years on Lesbos, observing and describing the animals and plants, considering the adaptations of different organisms and the function of their parts. [4] Four hundred years later, Roman physician Galen dissected animals to study their anatomy and the function of the different parts, because the dissection of human cadavers was prohibited at the time. [5] This resulted in some of his conclusions being false, but for many centuries it was considered heretical to challenge any of his views, so the study of anatomy stultified. [6]

During the post-classical era, Middle Eastern science and medicine was the most advanced in the world, integrating concepts from Ancient Greece, Rome, Mesopotamia and Persia as well as the ancient Indian tradition of Ayurveda, while making numerous advances and innovations. [7] In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus produced commentaries and paraphrases of all Aristotle's works his books on topics like botany, zoology, and minerals included information from ancient sources, but also the results of his own investigations. His general approach was surprisingly modern, and he wrote, "For it is [the task] of natural science not simply to accept what we are told but to inquire into the causes of natural things." [8] An early pioneer was Conrad Gessner, whose monumental 4,500-page encyclopedia of animals, Historia animalium, was published in four volumes between 1551 and 1558. [9]

In Europe, Galen's work on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century. [10] [11] During the Renaissance and early modern period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey, who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology, and naturalists such as Carl Linnaeus, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, and Buffon who began to classify the diversity of life and the fossil record, as well as studying the development and behavior of organisms. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek did pioneering work in microscopy and revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. [12] van Leeuwenhoek's observations were endorsed by Robert Hooke all living organisms were composed of one or more cells and could not generate spontaneously. Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. [13]

Having previously been the realm of gentlemen naturalists, over the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography, laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology and ethology. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species. [14]

These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection in this Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by explaining the processes by which it can occur, and providing observational evidence that it had done so. [15] Darwin's theory was rapidly accepted by the scientific community and soon became a central axiom of the rapidly developing science of biology. The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel on peas in 1865, although the significance of his work was not realized at the time. [16]

Darwin gave a new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution. The result was a reconstruction of the classification of animals upon a genealogical basis, fresh investigation of the development of animals, and early attempts to determine their genetic relationships. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery. In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work led to the rapid development of genetics, and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural selection in the modern synthesis created evolutionary biology. [17]

Research in cell biology is interconnected to other fields such as genetics, biochemistry, medical microbiology, immunology, and cytochemistry. With the sequencing of the DNA molecule by Francis Crick and James Watson in 1953, the realm of molecular biology opened up, leading to advances in cell biology, developmental biology and molecular genetics. The study of systematics was transformed as DNA sequencing elucidated the degrees of affinity between different organisms. [18]

Zoology is the branch of science dealing with animals. A species can be defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sex can produce fertile offspring about 1.5 million species of animal have been described and it has been estimated that as many as 8 million animal species may exist. [19] An early necessity was to identify the organisms and group them according to their characteristics, differences and relationships, and this is the field of the taxonomist. Originally it was thought that species were immutable, but with the arrival of Darwin's theory of evolution, the field of cladistics came into being, studying the relationships between the different groups or clades. Systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, the evolutionary history of a group is known as its phylogeny, and the relationship between the clades can be shown diagrammatically in a cladogram. [20]

Although someone who made a scientific study of animals would historically have described themselves as a zoologist, the term has come to refer to those who deal with individual animals, with others describing themselves more specifically as physiologists, ethologists, evolutionary biologists, ecologists, pharmacologists, endocrinologists or parasitologists. [21]

Although the study of animal life is ancient, its scientific incarnation is relatively modern. This mirrors the transition from natural history to biology at the start of the 19th century. Since Hunter and Cuvier, comparative anatomical study has been associated with morphography, shaping the modern areas of zoological investigation: anatomy, physiology, histology, embryology, teratology and ethology. [22] Modern zoology first arose in German and British universities. In Britain, Thomas Henry Huxley was a prominent figure. His ideas were centered on the morphology of animals. Many consider him the greatest comparative anatomist of the latter half of the 19th century. Similar to Hunter, his courses were composed of lectures and laboratory practical classes in contrast to the previous format of lectures only.

Gradually zoology expanded beyond Huxley's comparative anatomy to include the following sub-disciplines:

Classification Edit

Scientific classification in zoology, is a method by which zoologists group and categorize organisms by biological type, such as genus or species. Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy. Modern biological classification has its root in the work of Carl Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings have since been revised to improve consistency with the Darwinian principle of common descent. Molecular phylogenetics, which uses nucleic acid sequence as data, has driven many recent revisions and is likely to continue to do so. Biological classification belongs to the science of zoological systematics. [23]

Many scientists now consider the five-kingdom system outdated. Modern alternative classification systems generally start with the three-domain system: Archaea (originally Archaebacteria) Bacteria (originally Eubacteria) Eukaryota (including protists, fungi, plants, and animals) [24] These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the chemical composition of the cell exteriors. [24]

Further, each kingdom is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is: Domain kingdom phylum class order family genus species. The scientific name of an organism is generated from its genus and species. For example, humans are listed as Homo sapiens. Homo is the genus, and sapiens the specific epithet, both of them combined make up the species name. When writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the specific epithet in lowercase. Additionally, the entire term may be italicized or underlined. [25]

The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. The classification, taxonomy, and nomenclature of zoological organisms is administered by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. A merging draft, BioCode, was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize nomenclature, but has yet to be formally adopted. [26]

Vertebrate and invertebrate zoology Edit

Vertebrate zoology is the biological discipline that consists of the study of vertebrate animals, that is animals with a backbone, such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The various taxonomically oriented disciplines such as mammalogy, biological anthropology, herpetology, ornithology, ichthyology identify and classify species and study the structures and mechanisms specific to those groups. The rest of the animal kingdom is dealt with by invertebrate zoology, a vast and very diverse group of animals that includes sponges, echinoderms, tunicates, worms, molluscs, arthropods and many other phyla, but single-celled organisms or protists are not usually included. [27]

Structural zoology Edit

Cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behavior, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the specialized cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. The similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology.

Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems. [28] It focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are closely related, and can be categorized under "structural" studies. Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different groups. It is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny (the evolution of species). [29]

Physiology Edit

Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human species. Physiology studies how for example nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems, function and interact. [30]

Developmental biology Edit

Developmental biology is the study of the processes by which animals and plants reproduce and grow. The discipline includes the study of embryonic development, cellular differentiation, regeneration, asexual reproduction, metamorphosis, and the growth and differentiation of stem cells in the adult organism. [31] Development of both animals and plants is further considered in the articles on evolution, population genetics, heredity, genetic variability, Mendelian inheritance, and reproduction.

Evolutionary biology Edit

Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes (natural selection, common descent, speciation) that produced the diversity of life on Earth. Evolutionary research is concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many taxonomically oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, herpetology, or entomology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution. [32]

Evolutionary biology is partly based on paleontology, which uses the fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, [33] and partly on the developments in areas such as population genetics [34] and evolutionary theory. Following the development of DNA fingerprinting techniques in the late 20th century, the application of these techniques in zoology has increased the understanding of animal populations. [35] In the 1980s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology. Related fields often considered part of evolutionary biology are phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy. [36]

Ethology Edit

Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behavior under natural conditions, [37] as opposed to behaviourism, which focuses on behavioral response studies in a laboratory setting. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, influenced many future ethologists. [38]

A subfield of ethology is behavioral ecology which attempts to answer Nikolaas Tinbergen's four questions with regard to animal behavior: what are the proximate causes of the behaviour, the developmental history of the organism, the survival value and phylogeny of the behavior? [39] Another area of study is animal cognition, which uses laboratory experiments and carefully controlled field studies to investigate an animal's intelligence and learning. [40]

Biogeography Edit

Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the Earth, [41] focusing on topics like plate tectonics, climate change, dispersal and migration, and cladistics. It is an integrative field of study, uniting concepts and information from evolutionary biology, taxonomy, ecology, physical geography, geology, paleontology and climatology. [42] The origin of this field of study is widely accredited to Alfred Russel Wallace, a British biologist who had some of his work jointly published with Charles Darwin. [43]

Molecular biology Edit

Molecular biology studies the common genetic and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants, attempting to answer the questions regarding the mechanisms of genetic inheritance and the structure of the gene. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick described the structure of DNA and the interactions within the molecule, and this publication jump-started research into molecular biology and increased interest in the subject. [44] While researchers practice techniques specific to molecular biology, it is common to combine these with methods from genetics and biochemistry. Much of molecular biology is quantitative, and recently a significant amount of work has been done using computer science techniques such as bioinformatics and computational biology. Molecular genetics, the study of gene structure and function, has been among the most prominent sub-fields of molecular biology since the early 2000s. Other branches of biology are informed by molecular biology, by either directly studying the interactions of molecules in their own right such as in cell biology and developmental biology, or indirectly, where molecular techniques are used to infer historical attributes of populations or species, as in fields in evolutionary biology such as population genetics and phylogenetics. There is also a long tradition of studying biomolecules "from the ground up", or molecularly, in biophysics. [45]


Biology (BIO)

An introduction to major biological concepts including: the cell origins and chemistry of life energy capture and its use in biological systems heredity and genetics biodiversity and its origins evolution, and systematics of major groups of organisms and how they function and interact with each other. The courses BIO 1109, Biology 4U cannot be combined for units.

Course Component: Lecture

The course BIO 1109 may be taken for upgrading purposes or as an admission requirement. In all cases, units for this course do not count as part of any program requirements. S/NS grading scheme.

BIO 1130 Introduction to Organismal Biology (3 units)

Survey of the evidence for, and the fundamentals underlying the evolution of biological diversity. Topics include: Mechanisms of natural selection and speciation, major trends and changes in biotic diversity and extinction of organisms over time organismal interactions at the population and community levels, including human impacts on the structure and function of ecological systems. Previously BIO 1120.

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

Prerequisite or corequisite: 4U Biology or BIO 1109.

BIO 1140 Introduction to Cell Biology (3 units)

Origin of life. Structure and varieties of cells. The cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix. Movements within and by cells including muscles. The cell cycle and reproduction. The fundamentals of molecular biology including replication, transcription and translation. Membrane transport. Previously BIO 1110.

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

Prerequisite: 4U Biology or BIO 1109.

BIO 1300 The Human Animal (3 units)

The biology of the human species. The human species' place, and what it means to be, within the Kingdom Animalia. The human species' origin, evolution, basic anatomy, physiology, reproduction and sexuality. The biological basis of human families, cultures and societies will also be discussed.

Course Component: Lecture

This course cannot count as a science optional course, but may be used as an elective. This course may only be taken as a complementary elective by Engineering students.

BIO 1509 Principes de biologie (3 crédits)

Introduction aux principaux concepts en biologie : origine et chimie de la vie, capture et utilisation de l'énergie dans les systèmes biologiques, hérédité et génétique, biodiversité et ses origines, évolution, systématique des principaux groupes d'organismes vivants et interactions biotiques. Les cours BIO 1509 et Biologie 4U ne peuvent pas être combinés pour des crédits.

Volet : Cours magistral

Le cours BIO 1509 est un cours de mise à niveau. Il peut être suivi à ce titre ou pour répondre à une condition d'admission. Dans tous les cas, il ne saurait être retenu pour crédits aux fins des exigences de programmes. Noté S/NS.

BIO 1530 Introduction à la biologie des organismes (3 crédits)

Vue d'ensemble des preuves et des principes fondamentaux de l'évolution de la biodiversité. Les sujets abordés incluent: les mécanismes de la sélection naturelle et de la spéciation, les tendances majeures et les changements dans la diversité biotique et de l'extinction dans le temps interactions d'organismes au niveau des populations et des communautés, ainsi que leffet des humains sur la structure et les fonctions des systèmes écologiques. Antérieurement BIO 1520.

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

Préalable ou concomitant : Biologie 4U ou BIO 1509.

BIO 1540 Introduction à la biologie cellulaire (3 crédits)

Origine et chimie de la vie structure et fonction des cellules et des organites organisation, réplication et expression du matériel génétique cycle cellulaire trafic intracellulaire matrice extracellulaire et communication intercellulaire différenciation et types cellulaires. Antérieurement BIO 1510.

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

Préalable : Biologie 4U ou BIO 1509.

BIO 1700 L'animal humain (3 crédits)

Biologie de l'espèce humaine. La place de l'être humain, et ce qu'elle représente, à l'intérieur du règne animal. L'origine de l'être humain, son évolution, physiologie, reproduction et sexualité. La signification biologique des familles humaines, des cultures et des sociétés sera aussi discutée.

Volet : Cours magistral

Ce cours ne peut pas être considéré comme un cours optionnel en sciences, mais peut être utilisé comme cours au choix. Ce cours ne peut être suivi que comme cours complémentaire par les étudiants en génie.

BIO 2110 Environmental Physiology (3 units)

How representative individual healthy organisms respond to various natural or anthropogenic physical environmental parameters such as temperature, water, pH, electromagnetic radiation including UV, gases, pressure and heavy metals. Primary and secondary stress responses and homeostatis will be considered throughout. This course is intended primarily for students enrolled in the Environmental Science program.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 2129 Ecology (3 units)

Introduction to the study of ecological systems: the nature of ecological experiments population dynamics population harvesting ecological processes structuring biological communities in space and time energy and nutrient flows in ecosystems the relationship between ecological goods and services. Field and lab exercises expose students to basic principles in ecological study design, experimentation and sampling, data analysis, and illustrate important ecological processes. Previously BIO2109.

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

BIO 2133 Genetics (3 units)

Introduction to Mendel's laws of inheritance application of Mendelian analysis to problems in genetics including: gene mapping and linkage, molecular genetics, bioinformatics and population genetics. Laboratory session includes experiments to illustrate genetic principles, tutorial and problem sessions. Previously BIO 2123.

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

BIO 2135 Animal Form and Function (3 units)

Lectures on main animal groups, their life cycles, development, body plan, functional organisation including metabolism and their adaptation to different environments. Previously BIO 2125.

Course Component: Lecture, Laboratory

BIO 2137 Introduction to Plant Science (3 units)

Evolution of the diversity of plants, physiological and anatomical concepts metabolism including photosynthesis recent applications in ecology and biotechnology. Previously BIO 2127.

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

BIO 2510 Physiologie environnementale (3 crédits)

Ce cours examine comment un organisme isolé et en santé réagit aux paramètres physico-environnementaux naturels et anthropogéniques tels la température, l'eau, le pH, les radiations électromagnétiques incluant les rayons ultraviolets, les gaz, la pression et les métaux lourds. Les réponses primaires et secondaires aux divers stress ainsi que l'homéostasie seront examinées. Ce cours est destiné principalement aux étudiants inscrits dans le programme des Sciences Environnementales.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 2529 Écologie (3 crédits)

Introduction à l'étude des systèmes écologiques: la nature des expériences écologiques les dynamiques de populations l'exploitation des populations les processus qui structurent les communautés dans le temps et l'espace les flux d'énergie et d'éléments nutritifs dans les écosystèmes la relation entre les structures et fonctions écologiques les produits et services écologiques. Travaux pratiques sur le terrain et en laboratoire illustrant des processus écologiques importants, principes fondamentaux du design expérimental, l'analyses des données et de l'échantillonnage écologique. Antérieurement BIO 2509.

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

BIO 2533 Génétique (3 crédits)

Introduction aux lois mendéliennes de l'hérédité application de l'analyse mendélienne à des problèmes de génétique incluant la cartographie des gènes et l'analyse de liaison, la bioinformatique et la génétique des populations. Le laboratoire comprend des expériences qui illustrent les principes de la génétique, ainsi que des sessions de travaux pratiques et de problèmes. Antérieurement BIO 2523.

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

BIO 2535 Animaux: structures et fonctions (3 crédits)

Cycles biologiques, développement, architecture, anatomie fonctionnelle, métabolisme et adaptations aux différents environnements des principaux types d'animaux. Antérieurement BIO 2525.

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

BIO 2537 Introduction aux végétaux (3 crédits)

Évolution de la diversité des groupes végétaux concepts anatomiques et physiologiques notions du métabolisme incluant la photosynthèse applications récentes en biotechnologie et en sciences de l'environnement. Antérieurement BIO 2527.

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

BIO 3009 Stage de recherche / Research Practicum (6 crédits / 6 units)

Sous la supervision d'un professeur de la Faculté des sciences, l'étudiant réalisera un projet de recherche qui lui permettra d'élargir ses connaissances dans un des domaines de la biologie. Les étudiants participeront également à des ateliers, des conférences, des séminaires et/ou des discussions pour apprendre l'essentiel du design expérimental en sciences biologiques. / Under the supervision of a professor in the Faculty of Science, the student will participate in a research project designed to broaden the student's knowledge of a selected field of biology. Students will also participate in workshops, lectures, seminars and/or discussions to introduce them to the essentials of experimental design in biological sciences.

Volet / Course Component: Théorie et laboratoire / Theory and Laboratory

Préalables : Réservé aux étudiants ayant complété un minimum de 54 crédits universitaires et inscrits dans un programme spécialisé en Biologie. L'étudiant doit avoir conservé une MPC de 8.0. Cours contingenté. / Prerequisite: Reserved for students registered in an Honours program in Biology and that have completed a minimum of 54 university units. The student must maintain a minimum CGPA of 8.0. Limited enrollment.

BIO 30091 Stage de recherche (Partie 1 de 2) / Research Practicum (Part 1 of 2)

Sous la supervision d'un professeur de la Faculté des sciences, l'étudiant réalisera un projet de recherche qui lui permettra d'élargir ses connaissances dans un des domaines de la biologie. Les étudiants participeront également à des ateliers, des conférences, des séminaires et/ou des discussions pour apprendre l'essentiel du design expérimental en sciences biologiques. (Partie 1 de 2) / Under the supervision of a professor in the Faculty of Science, the student will participate in a research project designed to broaden the student's knowledge of a selected field of biology. Students will also participate in workshops, lectures, seminars and/or discussions to introduce them to the essentials of experimental design in biological sciences. (Part 1 of 2)

Volet / Course Component: Théorie et laboratoire / Theory and Laboratory

Préalables : Réservé aux étudiants ayant complété un minimum de 54 crédits universitaires et inscrits dans un programme spécialisé en Biologie. L'étudiant doit avoir conservé une MPC de 8.0. Cours contingenté. / Prerequisite: Reserved for students registered in an Honours program in Biology and that have completed a minimum of 54 university units. The student must maintain a minimum CGPA of 8.0. Limited enrollment.

BIO 30092 Stage de recherche (Partie 2 de 2) / Research Practicum (Part 2 of 2) (6 crédits / 6 units)

Sous la supervision d'un professeur de la Faculté des sciences, l'étudiant réalisera un projet de recherche qui lui permettra d'élargir ses connaissances dans un des domaines de la biologie. Les étudiants participeront également à des ateliers, des conférences, des séminaires et/ou des discussions pour apprendre l'essentiel du design expérimental en sciences biologiques. (Partie 2 de 2) / Under the supervision of a professor in the Faculty of Science, the student will participate in a research project designed to broaden the student's knowledge of a selected field of biology. Students will also participate in workshops, lectures, seminars and/or discussions to introduce them to the essentials of experimental design in biological sciences. (Part 2 of 2)

Volet / Course Component: Théorie et laboratoire / Theory and Laboratory

Préalables : BIO 30091. Réservé aux étudiants ayant complété un minimum de 54 crédits universitaires et inscrits dans un programme spécialisé en Biologie. L'étudiant doit avoir conservé une MPC de 8.0. Cours contingenté. / Prerequisites: BIO 30091. Reserved for students registered in an Honours program in Biology and that have completed a minimum of 54 university units. The student must maintain a minimum CGPA of 8.0. Limited enrollment.

BIO 3102 Molecular Evolution (3 units)

Mechanisms and forces responsible for changes in genetic material during evolution. Topics will include rates and patterns of nucleotide substitutions, molecular phylogenies, molecular clocks, origin of the eukaryotic cell, origin of introns, concerted evolution, transposable elements.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3103 Field Biology (3 units)

This course offers a wide variety of two-week field modules that examine the structure and functioning of ecological systems. The modules are offered under the aegis of the Ontario Universities Field Program in Biology (www.oupfb.ca). They provide hands-on experience with many different ecosystems, groups of organisms, and ecological techniques in the field. Supplemental fees apply, depending on the module(s) chosen. Students may take more than one module for units with the permission of the Department. Consult the Department of Biology for details about the subjects and locations of available modules. Previously BIO 3105.

Course Component: Laboratory

Permission of the Department is required.

BIO 3115 Conservation Biology (3 units)

An introduction to the science of conservation biology, with a focus on both the causes of, and solutions to, the problems of biodiversity decline. Topics may include current and future threats to biodiversity, including habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation invasive species exploitation and harvesting pollution and climate change, and how these threats might be successfully mitigated.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3117 Ecosystem Ecology (3 units)

Structure and function of natural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Particular attention will be paid to influences of the human species on these systems.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3119 Population Genetics (3 units)

A combination of observation and mathematics is used to study the processes that cause allele frequency change within and among populations including mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and migration, while taking account of the mechanism of Mendelian inheritance and the effects of population structure.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3122 Evolutionary Biology (3 units)

An in-depth examination of the processes underlying micro- and macroevolution. Topics may include adaptation, mechanisms of speciation, species concepts, the comparative method and coevolution. Practical applications of evolutionary principles to fields such as medicine and agriculture will be introduced.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisites: BIO 1130 and at least three BIO units at the 2000 level.

BIO 3124 General Microbiology (3 units)

Characterization and classification of micro-organisms, including bacteria, fungi, algae and viruses. Introduction to microbial physiology, genetic and differentiation. Role of micro-organisms in the natural world.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3126 General Microbiology Laboratory (3 units)

Laboratory work accompanying BIO 3124, with emphasis on study and identification of bacteria. (Limited enrolment).

Course Component: Laboratory

BIO 3124 is prerequisite or corequisite to BIO3126.

BIO 3137 Experiments in Animal Physiology (3 units)

Representative experiments to illustrate basic principles of animal physiology. (Limited enrolment.)

Course Component: Laboratory

BIO 3302 or BIO 3303 or BIO 3305 or PHS 3341 or PHS 3342 is prerequisite or corequisite to BIO 3137.

BIO 3140 Plant Physiology and Biochemistry (3 units)

Selected topics in plant physiology, including photosynthesis, mineral nutrition, water relations, the control of growth and development, and phytohormones.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3142 Plant Developmental Biology (3 units)

Overview of embryo development, root meristems, shoot meristems, leaf and flower development, with an emphasis on the regulation of gene expression and signalling. Methods for investigating mechanisms of plant development. Discussion of current topics such as patterning in tissues, polarity and symmetry. Offered in alternate years. Previously BIO 4140.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3146 Ecophysiology of Plants (3 units)

Experiments in physiological adaptations of plants to different environmental conditions. Effects of biotic and abiotic factors such as symbiosis, herbivory, nutrients on plant growth and metabolism (Offered in alternate years.) Limited enrolment. Previously BIO 3156.

Course Component: Laboratory

BIO 3147 Animal Developmental Biology (3 units)

Introduction to animal development emphasizing the vertebrate embryo. Mechanisms governing morphogenesis and cell and tissue differentiation will be covered.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3151 Molecular Biology Laboratory (3 units)

Introduction to basic techniques in molecular biology and their application in biotechnology. Cannot be combined for units with BCH 3356. (Limited enrolment).

Course Component: Laboratory

BIO 3170 is prerequisite or corequisite to BIO 3151. The courses BIO 3151, BCH 3356 cannot be combined for units.

BIO 3152 Cell Biology Laboratory (3 units)

Introduction to basic techniques in cell biology and their applications in biotechnology. (Limited enrolment).

Course Component: Laboratory

BIO 3153 Cell Biology (3 units)

Structure and function of cells with emphasis on cell communication (membranes and ion channels), cytoskeleton, protein sorting, cell cycle, apoptosis, nucleus organisation and research techniques.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3154 Population and Community Ecology (3 units)

A survey of key ecological processes operating at the level of individual populations or within assemblages of interacting species. Topics include: models of population dynamics, species interactions and coexistence, and analysis of biological diversity and community composition. Emphasis is on developing theory from first principles and applying it to real-world problems.

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

Prerequisites: BIO 2129, MAT 2379. Limited enrolment. Offered in alternate years.

BIO 3158 Vertebrate Zoology (3 units)

Morphological evolution of present-day and fossil vertebrates oriented toward major functional and structural modifications locomotion, feeding, respiratory and circulatory systems, reproduction, sense organs, adaptive radiations and biogeography. Laboratories: dissections and identification of Canadian fauna. (Offered in alternate years.) Previously BIO 3108.

Course Component: Lecture, Laboratory

BIO 3170 Molecular Biology (3 units)

Gene structure, expression and replication, protein synthesis: regulatory mechanisms and cellular regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisites: BIO 2133, BCH 2333. The courses BIO 3170, BCH 3170 cannot be combined for units.

BIO 3176 Animal Behaviour (3 units)

Introduction to the study of animal behaviour evolution and adaptive value of behaviour. The emphasis is on the sub-discipline of behavioural ecology.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: BIO 2129. Previously BIO 3166.

BIO 3302 Animal Physiology II (3 units)

Regulatory systems in animals. Physiological adjustments to environmental changes. Thermoregulation, osmoregulation and excretion, acid-base balance, respiration and circulation.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3303 Animal Physiology I (3 units)

Regulatory systems in animals. Physiological adjustments to environmental changes. Nervous systems, sensory physiology, nutrition, endocrinology, animal metabolism and locomotion. Previously BIO 3301.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3305 Cellular Physiology (3 units)

Fundamentals of cell function in an integrative context. The cellular and molecular mechanisms of cell excitability, muscle contraction, membrane transport, signal transduction and cellular metabolism will be covered using a comparative approach.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 3310 Plant Systematics and Diversity (3 units)

An introduction to the principles and methods of identifying, naming, and classifying vascular plants with an emphasis on the flora of eastern Canada. This course includes a survey of major plant families and their evolutionary relationships as well as brief accounts of the biogeography and post-glacial history of the main floristic associations of North America. (Offered in alternate years).

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

BIO 3333 Entomology (3 units)

A comprehensive study of the largest class of animals - the insects. Morphological structure, physiology and system organisation are combined with discussions of insect diversity - ecology and their impact on the human species. Laboratory involves investigations of representative groups.

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

Prerequisite: BIO 2135. Previously BIO 3323. Course not regularly offered. Consult Department.

BIO 3350 Principles of Neurobiology (3 units)

The structure and function of the nervous system with emphasis on mammalian systems but with reference to non-mammalian groups. Neuronal excitability/neurotransmission sensory and motor systems mechanisms of learning and memory development and regeneration in the nervous system.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: BIO 1140. The courses BIO 3350, CMM 3350 cannot be combined for units.

BIO 3360 Computational Tools for Biological Sciences (3 units)

All major research areas in biology (ecology, evolution, development, cell and molecular biology, physiology) rely in part on computational techniques. In this introductory course, students will learn how to create computer programs to address a variety of biological questions. An emphasis will be placed on simulation modeling of biological systems.

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

BIO 3502 Évolution moléculaire (3 crédits)

Mécanismes et forces responsables des changements du matériel génétique au cours de l'évolution. Taux et nature des substitutions, phylogénies moléculaires, horloge moléculaire, origine des eukaryotes, origine des introns, évolution concert, éléments transposables.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3503 Biologie de terrain (3 crédits)

Ce cours offre des modules de deux semaines de travaux pratiques sur le terrain, se penchant sur la structure et le fonctionnement de divers systèmes écologiques. Ces modules offrent de l'expérience pratique avec divers groupes d'organismes, différents écosystèmes, et des techniques d'échantillonnage. Des frais supplémentaires s'appliquent en fonction du module choisi. On peut recevoir des crédits pour plus d'un module avec l'approbation du département. Consultez le département concernant les dates, thèmes, et emplacement des modules disponibles.

Volet : Théorie et laboratoire

La permission du département est requise.

BIO 3515 Biologie de la conservation des espèces (3 crédits)

Une introduction à la science de la biologie de la conservation mettant l'accent à la fois sur les causes et les solutions aux problèmes liés au déclin de la biodiversité. Les sujets peuvent être les menaces actuelles et futures pour la biodiversité, y compris la perte, la fragmentation et la dégradation des habitats les espèces envahissantes l’exploitation et la récolte la pollution et les changements climatiques, et comment ces menaces pourraient être atténuées avec succès.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3517 Écologie des écosystèmes (3 crédits)

Structure et fonctionnement des écosystèmes naturels terrestres et aquatiques. Une attention particulière sera portée à l'impact des activités de l'espèce humaine sur ces systèmes.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3519 Génétique des populations (3 crédits)

Combinaison de l'observation et des mathématiques pour étudier les processus qui mènent à des changements de fréquences alléliques au sein et entre les populations, incluant la mutation, la sélection naturelle, la dérive génétique et la migration, tout en tenant compte du mécanisme de l'hérédité mendélienne et de la structure des populations.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3522 Biologie évolutive (3 crédits)

Étude approfondie des processus microévolutifs et macroévolutifs. Les sujets abordés pourraient inclure l'adaptation, la spéciation, les concepts d'espèces, la méthode comparative et la coévolution. Discussion des applications pratiques des principes évolutifs dans les disciplines telles que la médecine ou l'agriculture.

Volet : Cours magistral

Préalables : BIO 1530 et au moins trois crédits de cours BIO au niveau 2000

BIO 3524 Microbiologie générale (3 crédits)

Caractérisation et classification des microorganismes y compris les bactéries, les champignons, les algues et les virus. Introduction à la physiologie microbienne, la génétique et la différentiation. Le rôle des microorganismes dans leur habitat naturel.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3526 Laboratoire de microbiologie générale (3 crédits)

Travaux pratiques accompagnant BIO 3524, avec emphase sur l'étude et l'identification de bactéries. (Cours contingenté).

Volet : Laboratoire

Le cours BIO 3524 est préalable ou concomitant à BIO 3526.

BIO 3537 Expériences en physiologie animale (3 crédits)

Expériences représentatives illustrant les principes de base en physiologie animale. (Cours contingenté)

Volet : Laboratoire

Le cours BIO 3702 ou BIO 3703 ou BIO 3705 ou PHS 3341 ou PHS 3342 est préalable ou concomitant à BIO 3537.

BIO 3540 Physiologie et biochimie des plantes (3 crédits)

Sélection de sujets en physiologie végétale, incluant la photosynthèse, la nutrition minérale, les relations hydriques, le contrôle de la croissance et du développement, et les phytohormones.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3542 Biologie du développement des plantes (3 crédits)

Développement embryonnaire, méristèmes caulinaires et racinaires, organogenèse foliaire et florale, en mettant l'accent sur la régulation de l'expression génétique et la propagation de signaux. Méthodes d'étude des mécanismes de développement des plantes. Discussion de sujets actuels tels que la formation de motifs dans les tissus, la polarité et la symétrie. Offert tous les deux ans. Antérieurement BIO 4540.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3546 Écophysiologie des plantes (3 crédits)

Expériences sur les adaptations physiologiques des plantes à diverses conditions environnementales. Effets de facteurs biotiques et abiotiques tels que les symbioses, herbivorie, minéraux sur la croissance et le métabolisme des plantes. (Offert tous les deux ans.) Cours contingenté. Antérieurement BIO 3556.

Volet : Laboratoire

BIO 3547 Biologie du développement des animaux (3 crédits)

Introduction à l'embryologie en mettant l'emphase sur les embryons de vertébrés. Les mécanismes moléculaires d'induction et de différenciation cellulaire, de communications intercellulaires gouvernant la morphogenèse et l'organogenèse seront abordés.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3551 Laboratoire de biologie moléculaire (3 crédits)

Introduction aux techniques de base en biologie moléculaire et leur utilisation en biotechnologie. Les cours BIO 3551 et BCH 3756 sont mutuellement exclusifs. (Cours contingenté).

Volet : Laboratoire

Le cours BIO 3570 est préalable ou concomitant à BIO 3551.

BIO 3552 Laboratoire de biologie cellulaire (3 crédits)

Introduction aux techniques de base en biologie cellulaire et leur utilisation en biotechnologie. Cours contingenté.

Volet : Laboratoire

BIO 3553 Biologie cellulaire (3 crédits)

Structure et fonction des cellules et des organelles, avec accent sur: communication cellulaire cytosquelette, trafic des protéines, cycle cellulaire, apoptose, organisation du noyau, et méthodologie appliquée à la recherche.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3554 Écologie des populations et des communautés (3 crédits)

Vue d'ensemble des processus écologiques clés au niveau des populations ou au sein d'assemblages d'espèces en interaction. Les sujets comprennent : modèles de la dynamique des populations, coexistence et interactions entre espèces, techniques d'analyse de la diversité biologique et de la composition de communautés. On met l'accent sur le développement de théories à partir des principes de base et leur application aux problèmes du monde réel.

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

Préalables: BIO 2529, MAT 2779. Cours contingenté. Offert tous les deux ans.

BIO 3558 Zoologie des vertébrés (3 crédits)

Morphologie évolutive des vertébrés actuels et fossiles axée vers les grands changements structuraux et fonctionnels locomotion, alimentation, systèmes respiratoire et circulatoire, reproduction, organes des sens, radiations adaptatives et biogéographie. Laboratoires: dissections et identification de la faune canadienne. (Offert tous les deux ans.) Antérieurement BIO 3508.

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

BIO 3570 Biologie moléculaire (3 crédits)

Structure, expression et réplication des gènes, synthèse protéique: mécanismes de régulation chez les procaryotes et eucaryotes.

Volet : Cours magistral

Préalables : BIO 2533, BCH 2733. Les cours BIO 3570 et BCH 3570 ne peuvent être combinés pour l'obtention de crédits.

BIO 3576 Comportement animal (3 crédits)

Introduction à l'étude du comportement animal évolution et valeur adaptative du comportement. L'accent est mis sur la sous-discipline de l'écologie comportementale.

Volet : Cours magistral

Préalable : BIO 2529. Antérieurement : BIO 3566.

BIO 3702 Physiologie animale II (3 crédits)

Systèmes régulateurs des animaux. Ajustements physiologiques aux changements de l'environnement. Thermorégulation, osmorégulation et excrétion, régulation acido-basique, respiration et circulation

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3703 Physiologie animale I (3 crédits)

Systèmes régulateurs des animaux. Ajustements physiologiques aux changements de l'environnement. Systèmes nerveux, physiologie sensorielle, nutrition, endocrinologie, métabolisme des animaux et locomotion.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3705 Physiologie cellulaire (3 crédits)

Fonctions cellulaires fondamentales et leurs rôles dans la physiologie du corps entier. Dans un contexte comparatif, le cours traite des mécanismes moléculaires responsables de l'activité neuronale, de la contraction musculaire, du transport membranaire, de la transduction et du métabolisme cellulaire.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 3710 Systématique et diversité des plantes (3 crédits)

Une introduction aux principes et méthodes employés pour identifier, nommer et classifier les plantes vasculaires avec l'emphase mise sur la flore de l'est du Canada. Ce cours comprend un survol des principales familles de plantes et leurs relations évolutionnaires, ainsi qu'un bref examen de la biogéographie et de l'histoire postglaciaire des grandes associations floristiques de l'Amérique du Nord. (Offert tous les deux ans.)

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

BIO 3733 Entomologie (3 crédits)

Une étude approfondie de la plus grande classe d'animaux - les insectes. La structure morphologique, la physiologie et l'organisation des systèmes sont combinées avec des discussions sur la diversité des insectes - l'écologie et leur impact sur l'espèce humaine. Le laboratoire implique des enquêtes sur des groupes représentatifs.

Volet : Théorie et laboratoire

Préalable: BIO 2535. Cours n’est pas offert régulièrement. Consulter le département.

BIO 3750 Principes de neurobiologie (3 crédits)

Ce cours traite de la structure et fonction du système nerveux, avec de l'emphase sur les systèmes mammifères mais aussi avec des références aux groupes non-mammifères. Les thèmes incluent l'excitabilité neuronale et la neurotransmission les systèmes sensoriels et moteurs les mécanismes d'apprentissage et de mémoire le développement et la régénération du système nerveux.

Volet : Cours magistral

Préalable: BIO 1540. Les cours BIO 3750, CMM 3750 ne peuvent être combinés pour l'obtention de crédits.

BIO 3760 Outils informatiques pour la biologie (3 crédits)

Tous les domaines majeurs de la biologie (écologie, évolution, développement, biologie cellulaire et moléculaire, physiologie) dépendent en partie de l'utilisation d'outils informatiques. Dans ce cours d'introduction, les étudiants apprendront à créer des programmes informatiques pour répondre à une variété de questions en biologie, en mettant l'accent sur la modélisation et la simulation.

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

BIO 3924 Biologie des algues et des champignons / Biology of Algae and Fungi (3 crédits / 3 units)

Physiologie, écologie et taxonomie des algues et des champignons. Inclut une excursion obligatoire sur le terrain d'une journée de fin de semaine durant la session. Langues d'enseignement: français et anglais. / Physiology, ecology and taxonomy of the algae and fungi. Includes a compulsory one day field excursion on a week-end during the session. Both French and English will be used in the lectures.

Volet / Course Component: Laboratoire / Laboratory, Cours magistral / Lecture

Préalable : BIO 2137. / Prerequisite: BIO 2137. Limited enrollment. Course not regularly offered. Consult Department.

BIO 4004 Projet de recherche / Honours Research (3 crédits / 3 units)

Sous la supervision d'un professeur du département, l'étudiant réalisera un project de recherche qui lui permettra d'élargir ses connaissances dans un des domaines de la biologie. Les projets peuvent consister en une revue poussée de la littérature sur un sujet déterminé ou encore en un court projet expérimental sur le terrain ou en laboratoire. L'étudiant devra soumettre, par écrit, un rapport détaillé de ses travaux. (Cours contingenté). / Under the supervision of a professor in the department, the student will conduct a project designed to broaden the student's general knowledge of a selected field of biology. Projects could include either an extensive literature review of a selected topic or a small laboratory or field project. Requires the submission of a comprehensive paper.

Volet / Course Component: Recherche / Research

Préalables : Cours réservé aux étudiants et étudiantes ayant complété un minimum de 81 crédits universitaires et inscrits dans un programme spécialisé en biologie ou de majeure en biologie. Le cours BIO 4900 est concomitant à BIO 4004. Cours contingenté. / Prerequisites: Reserved for students registered in a major or an Honours program in Biology and that have completed a minimum of 81 university units. BIO 4920, BIO 4921 are corequisites to BIO 4004. Limited enrolment.

BIO 40041 Projet de recherche (Partie 1 de 2) / Honours Research (Part 1 of 2)

Sous la supervision d'un professeur du département, l'étudiant réalisera un project de recherche qui lui permettra d'élargir ses connaissances dans un des domaines de la biologie. Les projets peuvent consister en une revue poussée de la littérature sur un sujet déterminé ou encore en un court projet expérimental sur le terrain ou en laboratoire. L'étudiant devra soumettre, par écrit, un rapport détaillé de ses travaux. (Cours contingenté). (Partie 1 de 2) / Under the supervision of a professor in the department, the student will conduct a project designed to broaden the student's general knowledge of a selected field of biology. Projects could include either an extensive literature review of a selected topic or a small laboratory or field project. Requires the submission of a comprehensive paper. (Part 1 of 2)

Volet / Course Component: Recherche / Research

Préalables : Cours réservé aux étudiants et étudiantes ayant complété un minimum de 81 crédits universitaires et inscrits dans un programme spécialisé en biologie ou de majeure en biologie. Le cours BIO 4900 est concomitant à BIO 4004. Cours contingenté. / Prerequisites: Reserved for students registered in a major or an Honours program in Biology and that have completed a minimum of 81 university units. BIO 4920, BIO 4921 are corequisites to BIO 4004. Limited enrolment.

BIO 40042 Projet de recherche (Partie 2 de 2) / Honours Research (Part 2 of 2) (3 crédits / 3 units)

Sous la supervision d'un professeur du département, l'étudiant réalisera un project de recherche qui lui permettra d'élargir ses connaissances dans un des domaines de la biologie. Les projets peuvent consister en une revue poussée de la littérature sur un sujet déterminé ou encore en un court projet expérimental sur le terrain ou en laboratoire. L'étudiant devra soumettre, par écrit, un rapport détaillé de ses travaux. (Cours contingenté). (Partie 2 de 2) / Under the supervision of a professor in the department, the student will conduct a project designed to broaden the student's general knowledge of a selected field of biology. Projects could include either an extensive literature review of a selected topic or a small laboratory or field project. Requires the submission of a comprehensive paper. (Part 2 of 2)

Volet / Course Component: Recherche / Research

BIO 4009 Projet de recherche / Honours Research (9 crédits / 9 units)

Cours ayant des exigences plus élevées que BIO 4004 et visant principalement à préparer l'étudiant à des études supérieures dans un des domaines de la biologie. Un projet de recherche de deux sessions se fera sous la direction d'un professeur du département. L'étudiant présentera son travail sous forme d'affiche, et soumettra un mémoire décrivant les résultats de ses travaux. (Cours contingenté). / This course is more demanding than BIO 4004 and is primarily designed to prepare a student for graduate studies in a selected field of biology. A two session research project will be done under the supervision of a professor in the department. The student is required to prepare a poster and submit to the Department a thesis describing the results of the research project. (Limited enrolment).

Volet / Course Component: Recherche / Research

Préalables : Réservé aux étudiants ayant complété un minimum de 81 crédits universitaires et inscrits dans un programme spécialisé en Biologie. L'étudiant doit avoir conservé une MPC de 6.0. Les cours BIO 4920, BIO 4921 sont concomitants à BIO 4009. / Prerequisite: Reserved for students registered in an Honours program in Biology and that have completed a minimum of 81 university units. The student must maintain a minimum CGPA of 6.0. BIO 4920, BIO 4921 are corequisite to BIO 4009. Limited enrollment.

BIO 40091 Projet de recherche (Partie 1 de 2) / Honours Research (Part 1 of 2)

Cours ayant des exigences plus élevées que BIO 4004 et visant principalement à préparer l'étudiant à des études supérieures dans un des domaines de la biologie. Un projet de recherche de deux sessions se fera sous la direction d'un professeur du département. L'étudiant présentera son travail sous forme d'affiche, et soumettra un mémoire décrivant les résultats de ses travaux. (Cours contingenté). (Partie 1 de 2) / This course is more demanding than BIO 4004 and is primarily designed to prepare a student for graduate studies in a selected field of biology. A two session research project will be done under the supervision of a professor in the department. The student is required to prepare a poster and submit to the Department a thesis describing the results of the research project. (Limited enrolment). (Part 1 of 2)

Volet / Course Component: Recherche / Research

Préalables : Réservé aux étudiants ayant complété un minimum de 81 crédits universitaires et inscrits dans un programme spécialisé en Biologie. L'étudiant doit avoir conservé une MPC de 6.0. Les cours BIO 4920, BIO 4921 sont concomitants à BIO 4009. / Prerequisite: Reserved for students registered in an Honours program in Biology and that have completed a minimum of 81 university units. The student must maintain a minimum CGPA of 6.0. BIO 4920, BIO 4921 are corequisite to BIO 4009. Limited enrollment.

BIO 40092 Projet de recherche (Partie 2 de 2) / Honours Research (Part 2 of 2) (9 crédits / 9 units)

Cours ayant des exigences plus élevées que BIO 4004 et visant principalement à préparer l'étudiant à des études supérieures dans un des domaines de la biologie. Un projet de recherche de deux sessions se fera sous la direction d'un professeur du département. L'étudiant présentera son travail sous forme d'affiche, et soumettra un mémoire décrivant les résultats de ses travaux. (Cours contingenté). (Partie 2 de 2) / This course is more demanding than BIO 4004 and is primarily designed to prepare a student for graduate studies in a selected field of biology. A two session research project will be done under the supervision of a professor in the department. The student is required to prepare a poster and submit to the Department a thesis describing the results of the research project. (Limited enrolment). (Part 12of 2)

Volet / Course Component: Recherche / Research

BIO 4109 Advanced Topics in Animal Development (3 units)

Current and advanced topics in developmental biology ranging from germ cell formation to organogenesis. Discussion will focus on molecular developmental genetics and coordinated gene regulation as the primary mechanism for embryonic development.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 4111 Plant-Animal Interactions (3 units)

A survey of the role of plant-animal interactions in the evolution of biodiversity, either by antagonistic processes including herbivory and seed predation and their consequent physical and chemical arms races, or mutualistic ones including pollination, seed dispersal and plant protection.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisites: BIO 2129 and one 3000 level course from Block B of the Honours BSc in Biology (Ecology, Evolution, Behaviour option).

BIO 4115 Topics in Molecular Genetics (3 units)

Understanding of genome structure and expression mechanisms. Topics may include: the detection of DNA variants the influences of genetic variability to genetic disease genes and animal models for the study of human genetic diseases.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: BIO 3170 or BCH 3170. This course is offered in alternate years. The courses BIO 4115, BIM 4115 cannot be combined for units.

BIO 4119 Topics in Respiratory Physiology (3 units)

Topics covered will include principles of gas exchange in terrestrial and aquatic animals, transport of 02 and C02 in blood, acid-base regulation and respiratory adaptations to exercise and environmental stresses.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 4120 Animal Adaptations (3 units)

The influence of environment and phylogeny on metabolic processes in cells, tissues and organisms. Emphasis will be placed on the impact of temperature, oxygen, hydrostatic pressure and solutes on animal function.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 4122 Experiments in Animal Behaviour (3 units)

Practical work in the laboratory and in the field covering basic topics in behavioural ecology.

Course Component: Laboratory

BIO 3176 is prerequisite or corequisite to BIO4122. Limited enrolment. Additional fees apply.

BIO 4127 Comparative Endocrinology (3 units)

General, comparative and evolutionary aspects of endocrinology - the study of hormones. The main topics examined are the anatomy, cellular and molecular aspects of endocrine organs, and the synthesis and function of the hormones they secrete.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 4134 Special Topics in Biology (3 units)

Course in a specialized area of Biology emphasizing recent advances in the area.

Course Component: Discussion Group, Laboratory, Lecture

Consult Department for offerings.

BIO 4142 Plant Immunity and Symbioses (3 units)

An introduction to the molecular interactions that occur between plants and their microbial symbionts, within the context of both beneficial and pathogenic associations between host and symbiont. This course will examine the basis of plant immunity, and the mechanisms by which micro-organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and oomycetes subvert, evade, or co-opt host defence responses to enable colonization. Offered in alternate years.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 4144 Plant Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (3 units)

An introduction to plant gene structure and function, cloning into plants and the manipulation of plant genes. The course will combine elements of plant biochemistry, physiology and molecular biology. (Offered in alternate years.)

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 4145 Eukaryotic Microbiology (3 units)

Biodiversity, behavioural ecology, evolution and genomics of eukaryotic microbes, including the current six phylogenetic supergroups that compose the eukaryotic domain. Topics will include a taxonomic and research overview of those evolutionary clades that are most relevant to human health and those that defy our conventional understanding of the processes of ecology, evolution and genomics in a broad sense. (Offered in alternate years.)

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 4146 Ecotoxicology (3 units)

Explores the challenges of moving from testing toxic chemicals on single organisms in the laboratory to assessing the effects of toxic chemicals on ecosystems. The influence of food chain processes, photochemistry, and other natural processes (sedimentation, volatilization, etc) will be discussed.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 4150 Spatial Ecology (3 units)

Introduction to key spatial patterns in ecology and conservation related to global change, ecosystems function, the distribution of species, and the environmental bases for these phenomena. Labs will provide practical introduction to geographic information systems and remote sensing data with applications in biological and environmental sciences (Limited enrolment).

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

BIO 4152 Animal Energetics (3 units)

Utilisation of energy during locomotion and prolonged food deprivation. Design and performance of physiological, biochemical and mechanical components of the locomotory system in vertebrates. Metabolic adaptations of the champions of endurance exercise (migrating animals) and fasting (hibernators).

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: BIO 3302 or BIO 3303 or BIO 3305. This course is offered in alternate years.

BIO 4156 Freshwater Ecology (3 units)

Physics and chemistry of lakes and streams, ecology of their biota. Includes an obligatory field component in early September and/or on weekends during the session. (Offered in alternate years). (Limited enrolment). Previously BIO4136.

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

BIO 4158 Applied Biostatistics (3 units)

Applied biostatistics to real problems. Experimental design and data collection. Consequences of violating assumptions of different tests. Monte Carlo and Bootstrap analysis. Case studies and exercises in using statistical analysis packages.

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

Prerequisite: MAT 2379. Limited enrollment. Previously BIO 4118.

BIO 4159 Evolutionary Ecology (3 units)

A theoretical and empirical exploration of the ecological causes and consequences of evolutionary change. Overview of current research in the field may include natural selection and adaptation, levels of selection, coevolution, evolution of sex, sexual selection, speciation, and adaptive radiation. Readings will draw from the primary research literature.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 4175 Membrane Physiology (3 units)

Structure and function of membrane proteins and their physiological role in the cell. Emphasis will be placed on membrane ion channels of excitable cells, such as neurons, the electrical properties of membranes, and experimental techniques.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 4302 Comparative Biomechanics (3 units)

The study of how animals move. An introduction to how muscle and skeletal systems interact to produce essential movements in locomotion and feeding. This course will also focus on the material properties of tissues, basic concepts such as stress, strain and elastic modulus and how these properties influence animal form and function. The course will be divided among lectures, seminar presentations and tutorials on biomechanical measurement techniques. There will be a large comparative and evolutionary component to the discussions held in class.

Course Component: Discussion Group, Lecture

Prerequisite: BIO 2135 or BIO 3137 or BIO 3303 or BIO 3305. Limited enrollment.

BIO 4351 Neural Basis of Animal Behaviour (3 units)

Selected topics on the neural mechanisms underlying natural animal behaviours, with an emphasis on nature's "experts" in sensory and motor processing.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 4511 Interactions plantes-animaux (3 crédits)

Vue d'ensemble de l'impact des interactions plantes-animaux sur l'évolution de la biodiversité, soit par des processus antagonistes - y compris l'herbivorie et la prédation des graines, et les courses aux armements (physiques et chimiques) qui en découlent soit par des processus mutualistes - y compris la pollinisation, la dispersion des graines, et la protection des plantes.

Volet : Cours magistral

Préalables: BIO 2529 et un cours de niveau 3000 du Bloc B du B.Sc. spécialisé en biologie (option Écologie, évolution et comportement). Offert tous les deux ans.

BIO 4515 Thèmes choisis en génétique moléculaire (3 crédits)

Compréhension de la structure des génomes et des mécanismes d'expression. Les sujets traités peuvent comprendre: la détection des variations de séquences des génomes les influences de la variabilité génétique associée aux maladies et la description de modèles animaux utilisés pour l'étude de maladies génétiques humaines.

Volet : Cours magistral

Préalable: BIO 3570 ou BCH 3570. Ce cours est offert tous les deux ans. Les cours BIO 4515, BIM 4515 ne peuvent être combinés pour l'obtention de crédits.

BIO 4522 Travaux pratiques en comportement animal (3 crédits)

Travaux pratiques en laboratoire et sur le terrain portant sur des thèmes de recherche en écologie comportementale. Des frais supplémentaires sont exigés. (Cours contingenté).

Volet : Laboratoire

BIO3576 est préalable ou concomitant à BIO 4522.

BIO 4527 Endocrinologie comparée (3 crédits)

Les aspects généraux, comparatifs et évolutifs de l'endocrinologie - l'étude des hormones. Les principaux sujets abordés sont l'anatomie, les aspects cellulaires et moléculaires des organes endocriniens, et la synthèse et la fonction des hormones qu'ils sécrètent.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 4534 Sujets choisis en biologie (3 crédits)

Cours spécialisé dans l'une des sous-disciplines de la biologie et mettant en évidence les développements récents.

Volet : Cours magistral

Consulter le Département pour les cours offerts.

BIO 4537 Génétique évolutive humaine (3 crédits)

Structure et diversité du génome humain. Origine de l'espèce humaine et migrations subséquentes. Diversité des populations humaines. Implications de nos origines et des séquences du génome humain sur les questions de santé.

Volet : Cours magistral

Préalable : BIO 2533. Les cours BIO 4537, BIM 4537 ne peuvent être combinés pour l'obtention de crédits.

BIO 4542 Immunité des plantes et symbioses (3 crédits)

Introduction aux interactions moléculaires existant entre les plantes et leurs symbiotes microbiens, dans le contexte des associations bénéfiques et pathogènes entre l'hôte et le symbiote. Ce cours examinera les fondements de l'immunité des plantes et les mécanismes par lesquels des micro-organismes tels que virus, bactéries, champignons et oomycètes subvertissent, échappent ou cooptent les réponses de défense de l'hôte pour permettre la colonisation. Offert tous les deux ans.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 4545 Microbiologie des eucaryotes (3 crédits)

Biodiversité, écologie comportementale, évolution et génomique des six super-groupes qui composent actuellement le domaine des eucaryotes. Vue globale de la taxonomie et de la recherche en protistologie, en mettant l'accent sur les groupes qui sont les plus importants d'un point de vue médical, ainsi que sur les espèces qui défient radicalement notre compréhension générale des processus d'écologie, d'évolution et de génomique. (Offert tous les deux ans.)

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 4546 Écotoxicologie (3 crédits)

Ce cours explore les difficultés liées à la compréhension de l'impact des substances chimiques toxiques sur les écosystèmes alors que la recherche sur ces substances se fait surtout en laboratoire sur des organismes. L'impact de processus propres à la chaîne alimentaire, la photochimie ainsi que d'autres processus naturels (sédimentation, volatilisation, etc.) seront étudiés.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 4550 Écologie spatiale (3 crédits)

Une introduction aux principaux patrons spatiaux en écologie et conservation en lien avec les changements climatiques, le fonctionnement des écosystèmes, la répartition des espèces ainsi que les fondements environnementaux de ces phénomènes. Les laboratoires fourniront une introduction pratique aux systèmes d'information géographique (SIG) et à la télédétection pour applications aux sciences environnementales.

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

BIO 4551 Physiologie évolutive et écophysiologie (3 crédits)

Ce cours examinera l'évolution des systèmes physiologiques chez les animaux, les implications écologiques de la performance physiologique, ainsi que les méthodes et les approches utilisées dans ce domaine d'étude. Les exemples présentés vont entre autres couvrir les adaptations physiologiques liées à la locomotion, l'évolution physiologique associée à la taille corporelle et aux effets de l'habitat thermique.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 4552 Métabolisme énergétique des animaux (3 crédits)

Utilisation de l'énergie durant la locomotion et le jeûne prolongé. Conception et performance des éléments physiologiques, biochimiques et mécaniques du système locomoteur des vertébrés. Adaptations métaboliques des champions de l'exercice d'endurance (migrateurs) et du jeûne (hibernateurs).

Volet : Cours magistral

Préalables: BIO 3703 ou BIO 3702 ou BIO 3705. Ce cours est offert tous les deux ans.

BIO 4556 Écologie des eaux douces (3 crédits)

Environnement physique et chimique des lacs et ruisseaux, et l'écologie de leurs biotes. Le cours comprend une composante obligatoire de travaux pratiques sur le terrain au début de septembre et/ou durant les fins de semaine pendant la session. (Offert tous les deux ans.) Cours contingenté. Antérieurement BIO 4536.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 4558 Biostatistique appliquée (3 crédits)

Application des biostatistiques à des problèmes concrets. Design expérimental et échantillonnage. Impact des violations des hypothèses implicites d'application de divers tests. Analyse de Monte Carlo et Bootstrap. Études de cas et exercices d'utilisation de logiciels courants d'analyse statistique. (Offert tous les deux ans.) Cours contingenté. Antérieurement BIO 4518.

Volet : Laboratoire, Cours magistral

BIO 4702 Biomécanique comparative (3 crédits)

L'étude du mouvement chez les animaux. Une introduction sur l'interaction des systèmes musculaire et squelettique, laquelle est essentielle à la locomotion et à l'alimentation. Ce cours se penchera également sur les propriétés matérielles des tissus, ainsi que sur des concepts fondamentaux tels le stress, la tension, le module élastique et l'influence de ces propriétés sur la forme et la fonction des animaux. Le cours sera enseigné de façon magistrale ainsi que par le biais d'exposés et de tutoriels sur les techniques de mesures biomécaniques. Les discussions en classe auront une composante comparative et évolutive importante.

Volet : Groupe de discussion, Cours magistral

Préalable: BIO 2535 ou BIO 3537 ou BIO 3703 ou BIO 3705. Cours contingenté.

BIO 4920 Séminaire I Évaluer la science / Seminar I Evaluating Science (1.5 crédit / 1.5 unit)

Lectures, séminaires et/ou groupes de discussion permettant aux étudiants d'apprendre à faire une évaluation critique de la science dans les publications de recherche. Les sections du cours sont offertes selon la discipline et/ou la langue d'enseignement. / Through lectures, student seminars, and/or group discussions, students learn how to critically evaluate the quality of the science in research publications. Course sections are created by discipline and/or language of instruction.

Volet / Course Component: Séminaire / Seminar

Réservé aux étudiants inscrits dans leur dernière année d'un programme spécialisé en biologie. / For students in their last year of a Biology Honours program only.

BIO 4921 Séminaire II Développer et communiquer la science / Seminar II Developing and Communicating Science (1.5 crédit / 1.5 unit)

Lectures, séminaires et/ou groupes de discussion permettant aux étudiants d'apprendre à construire une proposition de recherche scientifique de qualité. Les sections du cours sont offertes selon la discipline et/ou la langue d'enseignement / Through lectures, student seminars, and/or group discussions, students learn how to construct research proposals that feature high quality science. Course sections are created by discipline and/or language of instruction.

Volet / Course Component: Séminaire / Seminar

Préalable : BIO4920. Réservé aux étudiants inscrits dans leur dernière année d'un programme spécialisé en biologie. L'inscription à BIO 4921 doit être à la même section que BIO 4920. / Prerequisite: BIO 4920. For students in their last year of a Biology Honours program only. Registration in BIO 4921 is to the same section as in BIO 4920.

BIO 5101 Topics in Biotechnology (3 units)

A course concerned with the utilization of biological substances and activities of cells, genes and enzymes in manufacturing, agricultural and service industries. A different topic will be selected each year. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5001 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: A course in cell physiology or biochemistry, or permission of instructor.

BIO 5102 Advanced Field Ecology (3 units)

Field experience in a new environment (e.g. local, national, international) to learn about ecological processes (note extra fees associated with course). This course is equivalent to BIOL 5605 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5103 Advanced Biochemistry (3 units)

Advanced topics in biochemistry: the chemical structure and function of biological macromolecules, biochemical thermodynamics, metabolism, photosynthesis, lipids and membranes. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5003 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5104 Advances in Applied Biochemistry (3 units)

Contemporary methods of recombinant DNA technology combined with modern methods and strategies for expressing, secreting, purifying and characterizing proteins. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5004 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5105 Advanced Neuroethology (3 units)

A comparative and evolutionary approach to studying neural mechanisms underlying animal behaviour, including genetic, neural and hormonal influences on behaviour. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5801 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisites: Biology 61.335 and 61.361 or equivalents and registration in a graduate program, or written permission of the department.

BIO 5106 Bioinformatics (3 units)

Major concepts and methods of bioinformatics. Topics may include, but are not limited to genetics, statistics and probability theory, alignments, phylogenetics, genomics, data mining, protein structure, cell simulation and computing. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5506 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5111 Biophysical Techniques (3 units)

Theory and application of current biochemical/biophysical instrumentation and techniques including X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry, infrared, circular dichroism and fluorescence spectroscopy, isothermal titration and differential scanning calorimetry. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5111 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5121 Advances in Protein Engineering (3 units)

Theory, development and current techniques of protein and enzyme engineering. Topics to be discussed may also include applications in biotechnology, nanotechnology and new frontiers in basic and applied research. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5121 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5128 Molecular Methods (3 units)

An intensive two-week laboratory course where students are introduced to methods such as CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing, in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR and digital droplet PCR.

Course Component: Theory and Laboratory

BIO 5129 Adverse Outcome Pathways: A Framework to Support the Modernization of Chemical Risk Assessment (3 units)

This course will introduce the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) framework and how it can be used to support the integration of modern test methods (e.g. in silico, in vitro, high throughput, etc..) into the chemical risk assessment process. Students will first learn about current practices and recent advances in both human health and ecological chemical risk assessment. Then students will receive an advanced introduction to the AOP framework, including the theory of AOPs, how they can be used in regulatory toxicology for facilitating the use of mechanistic data, test paradigm development, and risk assessment, and training on best practices for contributing to the AOP knowledge base. This will include in-class case studies on AOP development and a final assignment where student will be responsible for developing a novel AOP for a specific toxicity.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5130 Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology (3 units)

Introduction and current perspectives on world ethnobotanies, traditional knowledge, medicinal and food systems quantitative and qualitative methods ethical requirements pharmacological basis of traditional drugs, phytochemsitry, drug discovery and development safety, risk assessment and regulations.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5302 Methods in Molecular Genetics (3 units)

Theory and associated applications of emerging methods in molecular genetics, including information gathered from large-scale genome-wide analysis and protein-protein interaction data, and how this information can advance understanding of cell biology. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5105 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisites: Graduate standing and permission of the department.

BIO 5303 Biological Science in Practice (3 units)

Cross-cutting skills and issues in common to all biological disciplines. Key perspectives on philosophy of science, practical approaches to scientific publication and peer-review, data analysis and presentation, scientific inference, and technical writing will be provided through discipline-specific examples and associated practical work.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5305 Biostatistics I (3 units)

Application of statistical analyses to biological data. Topics include ANOVA, regression, GLMs, and may include loglinear models, logistic regression, general additive models, mixed models, bootstrap and permutation tests. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5407 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisites: Graduate standing, courses in elementary ecology and statistics and permission of the department.

BIO 5306 Modelling for Biologists (3 units)

Use and limitations of mathematical and simulation modelling approaches for the study of biological phenomena. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5409 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5308 Laboratory Techniques in Molecular Genetics (3 units)

Laboratory course designed to give students practical experience in recent important techniques in molecular genetics. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5106 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisites: Graduate standing and permission of the department.

BIO 5310 Advanced Evolutionary Biology (3 units)

Advances in micro-and macroevolution including the mechanisms both driving and constraining evolutionary change, phylogenetic relationships, patterns of evolutionary change at the molecular or phenotypic level, and evolutionary theory and techniques as applied to these areas. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5510 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5311 Advanced Evolutionary Ecology (3 units)

The ecological causes and consequences of evolutionary change, focussing on how the ecological interactions among organisms and their biotic and abiotic environments shape the evolution of phenotypic and species diversity. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5511 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5312 Principles and Methods of Biological Systematics (3 units)

Biological systematics with reference to morphological and molecular character evolution and phylogeny reconstruction.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5314 Advances in Aquatic Sciences (3 units)

Advanced theoretical and applied aquatic sciences including current topics in limnology and oceanography (e.g. impacts of climate change, invasive species, and atmospheric pollution) with implications for lake, river, coastal and wetland management. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5514 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5318 Biostatistics II (3 units)

Application of multivariate methods to biological data, including methods such as discriminant functions analysis, cluster analysis, MANOVA, principal components analysis.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5320 Advances in Conservation Biology (3 units)

Interdisciplinary exploration of the science of scarcity and diversity in a human dominated world. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5520 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5321 Evolutionary Genetics (3 units)

Genetic mechanisms and processes responsible for variation and evolutionary change in natural populations. Topics may include population and quantitative genetics as applied to protein and genome evolution, molecular phylogenies, DNA sequences in population biology, and the evolution of multigene families. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5521 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 5810 Education Research in Biology (3 crédits)

An introduction to the science of teaching and learning in biology. Students will be introduced to the foundational concepts in, and tools of, Discipline-Based Education Research (DBER) and will conduct their own DBER research project. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5810 at Carleton University. Includes: Experiential Learning Activities

Volet : Cours magistral

Permission of the Director or Associate Director of OCIB

BIO 5900 Séminaire de maîtrise / MSc Seminar (1 crédit / 1 unit)

Obligatoire à la maîtrise. L'obtention de crédit est fondée sur la présentation d'un séminaire jugé satisfaisant par le personnel et sur la participation à l'ensemble du cours. / Compulsory for all MSc students. For unit, each student must present one seminar judged to be satisfactory by the staff and must participate in the course as a whole.

Volet / Course Component: Séminaire / Seminar

BIO 6103 Special Topics in Neuroscience (3 units)

An in-depth study of current topics in neuroscience. Course content varies yearly and has recently included cognitive neuroscience, neuropharmacology, neurodegeneration, and behavioural medicine. Also listed as PSYC 6300. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6203 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 6300 Advanced Science Communication (3 units)

The theory and practice of effective science communication. Topics may include : writing for, presenting to, and engaging with diverse audiences, as well as graphic design and data visualization, social and digital media, and knowledge mobilization. Experiential Learning Activity: Applied Research. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6500 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 6303 Advanced Seminar in Neuroscience (3 units)

A seminar focusing on the active research areas and interests of faculty, guest lecturers and graduate students, and on trends in diverse areas of neuroscience. Also listed as PSYC 6200. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6303 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 6304 Techniques in Neuroscience (3 units)

Completion of a research project carried out under the supervision of a neuroscience faculty member. The student will learn a new neuroscience technique and apply it to a research objective. May be repeated for different projects. Also listed as PSYC 6204. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6204 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 6305 Advanced Seminar in Neuroscience (3 units)

A comprehensive pro-seminar series, covering issues ranging from cellular and molecular processes through to neural systems and behaviours as well as psychopathology. Also listed as PSYC 6202. Courses BIO 6305, BIO 6303 (BIOL 6303) cannot be combined for units. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6305 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 8102 Special Topics in Biology (3 units)

Selected aspects of specialized biological subjects not covered by other graduate courses. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5502 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Laboratory, Lecture

BIO 8104 Selected Topics in Biology III (3 units)

Lectures and/or seminars dealing with current advances in a selected area or branch of biology, not covered by other graduate courses.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 8105 Advances in Applied Ecology (3 units)

The application of ecological and evolutionary principles in addressing resource management challenges and environmental problems. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5512 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Permission of the Department is required.

BIO 8108 Advanced Topics in Development (3 units)

Recent advances in developmental biology. Topics may include embryonic induction, regulation of morphogenesis and differentiation, mechanisms of regional specification and pattern formation, and developmental genetics. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6505 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 8109 Advanced Molecular Biology (3 units)

In-depth coverage of the structure, function, and synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6001 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 8113 Chemical Toxicology (3 units)

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 8116 Advances on Plant Molecular Biology (3 units)

Use of molecular genetics in general plant biology and the contribution of plant genomics to our understanding of plant metabolism, plant development, and plant interactions with the environment at the molecular, genome, and cellular levels. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6002 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: BIO 8109/61.601F1 and this course normally will be offered together in the same year but only in alternate years.

BIO 8117 Advanced Cell Biology I (3 units)

Recent advances in cell biology, including such topics as membranes, signaling, the cytoskeleton and control of the cell cycle. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6201 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: BIO 8118/61.222W1 and this course normally will be offered together in the same year but only in alternate years.

BIO 8118 Advanced Cell Biology II (3 units)

Topics for discussion may include the following: the structure, composition and three-dimensional organization of the nucleus, mechanisms and regulation of genome replication, structural organization of transcription. Nuclear reorganization during gamete development, fertilization, viral infection and the miotic cell cycle. Normally offered in alternate years. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6202 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: BIO8 117/61.621F1 and this course normally will be offered together in the same year but only in alternate years.

BIO 8120 Directed Studies in Biology (3 units)

One-on-one instruction in selected aspects of specialized biological subjects not covered by other graduate courses. Students may not take this course from their thesis supervisor(s), and are limited to one directed studies course per program. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5502 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 8122 Advanced Insect Biology (3 units)

Overview of the biological processes that allow insects to function in their environments and to overcome the constraints and limitations that the environment places on them. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5307 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: In addition to the course material, students will write two terms papers (Alter nate years).

BIO 8162 Advanced Endocrinology (3 units)

Major topics in comparative endocrinology: understanding the structure, function and evolution of vertebrate endocrine systems, including endocrine disruption. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5402 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: An undergraduate Endocrinology course (BIO 4127 or equivalent).

BIO 8204S Ecology Seminar (3 crédits / 3 units)

Current advances in ecology.

Volet / Course Component: Cours magistral / Lecture

BIO 8301 Evolutionary Bioinformatics (3 units)

Fundamental concepts in molecular evolution and hands-on experience with computer analysis of DNA sequences. Topics may include molecular sequence databases, multiple alignments and phylogenetic trees. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5201 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: Graduate standing plus basic courses in genetics and evolution permission of the department.

BIO 8302 Topics in Evolutionary Genetics (3 units)

A lecture/seminar course on the genetic mechanisms and forces responsible for variation and evolutionary change in natural populations. Topics to include protein and genome evolution, molecular phylogenies, DNA sequences in population biology, and the evolution of multigene families. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5202 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: Graduate standing plus basic courses in genetics and evolution permission of the department (alternate years).

BIO 8303 Advanced Microscopy (3 units)

Development of the practical skills of microscopy through original research and supporting theory lectures. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5203 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisites: Open to 4th year and graduate students with consent of the instructor.

BIO 8306 Advanced Topics in Ecology (3 units)

Recent developments in population, community and/or ecosystem ecology. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5508 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 8320 Advanced Plant Biology (3 units)

Recent developments in plant biology. Topics may include plant anatomy, systematics, evolution, genetics, ecology, ethnobotany, cell biology, and/or biotechnology. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6300 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

Prerequisite: Biology 61.425 and Biology 61.426/427, or permission of the department.

BIO 8361 Advanced Animal Physiology (3 units)

Recent advances in animal physiology, emphasizing comparative, evolutionary and environmental approaches. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6304 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 8365 Advanced Behavioural Ecology (3 units)

Recent advances in behavioural ecology including topics such as the evolution of tactics and strategies of group living, foraging, anti-predation, resource use and defence, cooperation, reproduction, and parental care. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5802 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 8403 Advanced Plant Physiology (4 units)

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 8510 Thèmes choisis en biologie (3 crédits)

Aspects de sujets biologiques spécialisés qui ne sont pas couverts dans d'autres cours d'études supérieures.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 8520 Études dirigées en biologie (3 crédits)

Enseignement individualisé sur un sujet biologique spécialisé qui n'est pas couvert dans d'autres cours d'études supérieures. Il est interdit de suivre ce cours avec son directeur de thèse. Limite d'une seule étude dirigée par programme.

Volet : Cours magistral

BIO 8900 Séminaire de doctorat / PhD Seminar

Obligatoire au doctorat. L'obtention de crédit est fondée sur la présentation de deux séminaires jugés satisfaisants par le personnel et sur la participation à l'ensemble du cours. Ce cours est équivalent à BIOL 5501 à la Carleton University. / Compulsory for all PhD students. For unit, each student must present two seminars judged to be satisfactory by the staff and must participate in the course as a whole. This course is equivalent to BIOL 5501 at Carleton University.

Volet / Course Component: Séminaire / Seminar

BIO 8910 Thèmes choisis en biologie / Special Topics in Biology (3 crédits / 3 units)

Aspects de sujets biologiques spécialisés qui ne sont pas couverts dans d'autres cours d'études supérieures. / Selected aspects of specialized biological subjects not covered by other graduate courses.

Volet / Course Component: Cours magistral / Lecture

Prérequis : connaissance passive de l'anglais. / Prerequisite: Passive knowledge of French.

BIO 8938 Interaction entre plantes et animaux / Plant Animal Interactions (3 crédits / 3 units)

Les substances métaboliques secondaires des plantes et leur rôle en tant que phagorépresseurs ou phagostimulants pour les animaux et en tant qu'agents antifongiques ou allélopathiques. On discutera de la co-évolution des plantes et des organismes phytophages (insectes et mammifères) et des dimensions physiologique et écologique de cette relation. / Secondary metabolites of plants and their role as attractants or antifeedants to animals and as allelopathic or antifungal agents. Emphasis will be placed on co-evolution of plants and phytophagous organisms such as insects and mammals, and the ecological and physiological dimensions of this relationship. Offered in alternate years. Ce cours est équivalent à BIOL 6404 à la Carleton University. / This course is equivalent to BIOL 6404 at Carleton University.

Volet / Course Component: Cours magistral / Lecture

BIO 8940 Statistiques avancées et science ouverte / Advanced Statistics and Open Science (3 crédits / 3 units)

Les analyses statistiques sont fondamentales à un processus scientifique rigoureux. Par conséquent, il est primordiale de comprendre les statistiques et de reporter correctement les analyses pour améliorer la transparence et la qualité de la science. Le cours a pour objectifs: 1) d'améliorer la compréhension des modèles statistique avancés (incluant les modèles mixtes généralisés) 2) de développer de bonnes habitudes pour coder (utilisation de R et Rmarkdown) 3) d'améliorer la gestion des données et du code statistique (manipulation de données et github) et 4) de présenter les principes de science ouverte (se basant sur OSF). / Statistics are a key component of rigorous science and as such there is a need to both understand advanced statistics and properly document the analysis to improve scientific communication transparency and quality. The course aims to 1) provide an understanding of advanced statistical models (including generalized linear mixed models), 2) develop good coding practices (using R and Rmarkdown), 3) improve data and code management (data manipulation and github) and 4) present the principles of open science (using OSF).

Volet / Course Component: Cours magistral / Lecture

BIO 9101 Principles of Toxicology (3 units)

Basic theorems of toxicology with examples of current research problems. The concepts of exposure, hazard and risk assessment will be defined and illustrated with experimental material from some of the more dynamic areas of modern research. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6402 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 9104 Ecotoxicology (3 units)

Advances in ecotoxicology with emphasis on the biological effects of contaminants. The potential for biotic perturbance resulting from chronic and acute exposure of ecosystems to selected toxicants will be covered along with the methods, pesticide, herbicide and pollutant residue analysis and the concept of bound residues. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6403 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 9105 Seminar in Toxicology (3 units)

Highlights current topics in toxicology. The student will present a seminar and submit a report on the seminar topic. Student, faculty and invited seminar speakers. This course is equivalent to BIOL 6405 at Carleton University.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 9107 Toxicology and Regulation (3 units)

This course will help students develop the understanding and skills to apply research results in toxicology to real-world needs for the management of risks posed by environmental contaminants as well as the development of regulation and policy involving such management.

Course Component: Lecture

BIO 9701 Photobiologie (3 crédits)

Interaction de la lumière et des organismes vivants. Étude des sujets suivants : introduction à la photochimie et étude détaillée de la photosynthèse, de la vision, de la photosensibilité et du photopériodisme.


Assessment methods

You will be set two pieces of work for the course. The first of 500 words is due halfway through your course. This does not count towards your final outcome but preparing for it, and the feedback you are given, will help you prepare for your assessed piece of work of 1,500 words due at the end of the course. The assessed work is marked pass or fail.

English Language Requirements

We do not insist that applicants hold an English language certification, but warn that they may be at a disadvantage if their language skills are not of a comparable level to those qualifications listed on our website. If you are confident in your proficiency, please feel free to enrol. For more information regarding English language requirements please follow this link: https://www.conted.ox.ac.uk/about/english-language-requirements